history in the exact and systematic manner of the modern zoologist. Not only would that have been impossible at the time at which he lived, but he himself did not profess to be a scientific observer, and he was induced to prepare his work on natural history in consequence of the gross ignorance of this subject which was exhibited by many of the theologians of the period. His exposition of the natural history of his country is essentially the result of his interest in theological and legal matters, and his wide acquaintance with the learned culture of the Arabic language, and there fore is from a scientific point of view a mere compilation ; and at the same time his literary knowledge induced him to interrupt the scientific continuity of liis narrative by disquisitions of a totally irrelevant character. Thus, in the middle of his article on the Goose, he inserts a consecutive sketch of the history of the Caliphate, from the death of Ali to the accession of Al-Muktafi—a period of nearly 800 years—at the end of which historical interlude he resumes his article, as if it had not been interrupted. In spite, however, of its deficiencies, the Life of Animals has an interest of its own and a permanent value to scholars. All references in the Sunna to any particular animal are mentioned, anecdotes relating to it are intro duced, its uses in supplying articles of the materia medica are pointed out, the means to counteract its noxious qualities are indicated, the lawfulness of using its flesh as food is discussed, the proverbs which allude to it are recounted, and citations from the poets who have noticed it are quoted. The amount of discursive reading shown in the work is very great, as it contains quotations from 560 prose authors, and from the divans, or collected editions, of 199 poets. Upon the whole, therefore, the literary value of the treatise to scholars is by no means small, as it exhibits the natural history of his age and country surrounded by the associations with which the experience
and literature of the Arabs had invested it.After finishing his work on natural history, Damiri reproduced it in a compendious form, and it has thus come down to us in a large and a smaller recension. Others, moreover, (such as Al-Usyuti) formed abridgments of it.
Manuscript copies of the work exist in many public libraries, and the larger edition has been printed, in the original language, at Cairo, in 2 vols. folio, in 1278 a.h. (1861 A.D.) The European scholar who made the first and amplest use of this work was S. Bochart, in his Hierozoicon, which first appeared in 1GG3.
The other works of Damiri have not obtained, even in the East, the popularity accorded to his Life of Animals. His most prominent work on legal subjects is a commentary in four volumes on the Minhdj of An-Nawawi.
Haji Ohalfa, ed. Fluegel, vol. iii. p. 122 ; Nicoll, Biblioth. Bodlei. MSS. Orient. Cat. ; Fluegel s Arabischc Ildss. der K. K. Bibliothck ???u Wien ; Wuestenfeld s Aralische Aerzte und Naturforschcr, &c.
DAMIRON, Jean Philibert (1794-1862), a French writer on philosophy, was born at Belleville in 1794. At nineteen he entered the normal school, where he studied under Burnouf, Villemain, and Cousin. After teaching for several years in provincial towns, he came to Paris, where he lectured on philosophy in various institutions, and finally became professor in the normal school, and titular professor at the Sorbonne. In 1824 he took part with Dubois and Jouffroy in the establishment of the Globe; and he was also a member of the committee of the society which took for its motto Aide-toi, le Ciel t aidfra. In 1833 he was appointed chevalier of the Legion of Honour, and in 1836 member of the Academy of Moral Sciences. Damiron died at Paris on the 11th January 1862.
The chief works of Damiron, of which the best arc his accounts of French philosophers, are the following : An edition of the Nouveaux Melanges Philosophiqucs de Jovffroy (1842), with a notice of the author, in which Damiron softened and omitted several expressions used by Jouffroy, which were opposed to. the system of education adopted by the Sorbonne, an article which gave rise to a bitter controversy, and to a book by Pierre Leroux, De la Mutilation des Manuscrits de M. Jouffroy (1843) ; Essai sur I histoire de la philosophic en France au XIX. sieclc (1828, 3rd ed. 1834) ; Essai sur I histoire de la philosophic en Franceau X VII. sieclc (1846) ; Memoircs a scrvir pour I histoire de la philosophic en France au XVIII. sieclt (1858-64) ; Cours de philosophic ; De la Providence (1849, 1850).
DAMMAR, or Dammer, a resin, or rather series of resins, of the copal kind, obtained from various trees in India and the islands of the Eastern Archipelago. The resin known as dammar in British commerce is the produce of a huge pine tree, Dammara orientalis, which grows in Java, Sumatra, Borneo, and other Eastern islands. It oozes in large quantities from the tree in a soft viscous state, with a highly aromatic odour, which, however, it loses as it hardens by exposure. The resin -is much esteemed in Oriental communities for incense burning. Dammar is imported into England by way of Singapore ; and as found in British markets it is a hard, transparent, brittle, straw-coloured resin, destitute of odour. It is readily soluble in ether, benzole, and chloroform, and with oil of turpentine it forms a fine transparent varnish which dries clear, smooth, and hard. The Kaurie gum, or Dammar of New Zealand, is closely allied, both in source and properties, being produced by Dammara australis. Much of the New Zealand resin is found fossil in cir cumstances analogous to the conditions under which the fossil copal of Zanzibar is obtained. Dammar is besides a generic Indian name for various other resins, which, how ever, are little known in western commerce. Of these the principal are Black Dammar (the Hindustanee Kala-damar), yielded by Canarium stridum, and White Dammar, or Piney Varnish (Sufed-damar), the produce of Valeria indica. Sal Dammar (Damar) is obtained from Shorea robusta ; Hopea micrantha is the source of Rock Dammar (the Malay Dammer-batu) ; and other species yield resins which are similarly named, and differ little in physical properties.
DAMOCLES, one of the courtiers of Dionysius, tyrant of Syracuse. When he spoke in extravagant terms of the happiness of his sovereign, Dionysius is said to have placed him at a sumptuous banquet, with a naked sword suspended over his head by a single hair.
DAMON, a Pythagorean, celebrated for his disinterested affection for Pythias, or Phyntias, a member of the same sect. Condemned to death by Dionysius I. of Syracuse, Pythias begged to be set at liberty for a short time that he might arrange his affairs. Damon pledged his life for the return of his friend; and Pythias faithfully returned before the appointed day of execution. The tyrant, to express his admiration of their fidelity, released both the friends, and begged to be admitted to their friendship.
navigator, was born at East Coker, Somersetshire, about 1652. Having early become an orphan, he was removed from the Latin school, and placed with the master of a ship at Weymouth, in which he made a voyage to New foundland. On his return he engaged himself as a common sailor in a voyage to the East Indies. He served in 1673 in the Dutch war under Sir Edward Sprague, and was present at two engagements; but the declining state of his health induced him to come on shore, and remove to the country, where he remained some time. In the year follow ing he became an under-manager of a Jamaica estate, but continued only a short time in this situation. He after wards engaged in the coasting trade, and thus acquired an accurate knowledge of all the ports and bays of the island. He made two voyages to the Bay of Campeachy, and
remained for some time with the logwood-cutters, as a roin-