and ultimate. The various arts and sciences have subordinate ends in view. The art of medicine, for example, has health for its end. The art of shipbuilding has a ship, and the art of war has victory for its end. These are subordinate ends. But there is an ultimate end, an end in reference to which these, and all other subordinate ends, may be considered as means, a chief end or summum bonum which is desired for its own sake, and not for the sake of anything beyond it. What is this end? This is the question with which political science has to deal; for Aristotle uses the word πολιτικὴ as comprising what we more usually term ethics.
12. The name of this ultimate end is very easily given. There is no dispute about that. Both philosophers and the vulgar agree in calling it happiness. Happiness is the chief good, the ultimate end at which all human beings aim.
13. But there is a great diversity of opinion as to what happiness is. Philosophers differ from the vulgar; they differ, too, among themselves as to the nature of happiness. There are four theories of happiness, or good, which may be briefly mentioned: first, "that the good is an abstract something which exists independently, and through which all things that are good are constituted good;" secondly, that "it is sensual pleasure;" thirdly, that it is honour as attained in society; and fourthly, that "it consists
