Such lines as differ in direction by or by a multiple of have, therefore, precisely the same direction, and may, generally speaking, be regarded as the same. However, in such cases where the manner of describing a variable angle is taken into consideration, it may be necessary to distinguish carefully angles differing by
If, for example, we have decided to measure the arcs from left to right, and if to two straight lines correspond the two directions then is the angle between those two straight lines. And it is easily seen that, since falls between and the positive or negative value indicates at once that lies on the right or the left of as seen from the point of intersection. This will be determined generally by the sign of
If is a part of a curved line, and if to the tangents at correspond respectively the directions by which letters shall be denoted also the corresponding points on the auxiliary circles, and if be their distances along the arc from the origin, then the magnitude of the arc or is called the amplitude of
The comparison of the amplitude of the arc with its length gives us the notion of curvature. Let be any point on the arc and let be the same with reference to it that and are with reference to and If now or be proportional to the part of the arc, then we shall say that is uniformly curved throughout its whole length, and we shall call
the measure of curvature, or simply the curvature. We easily see that this happens only when is actually the arc of a circle, and that then, according to our definition, its curvature will be if denotes the radius. Since we always regard as positive, the upper or the lower sign will hold according as the centre lies to the right or to the left of the arc ( being regarded as the initial point, as the end point, and the directions on the auxiliary circle being measured from left to right). Changing one of these conditions changes the sign, changing two restores it again.
On the contrary, if be not proportional to then we call the arc non-uniformly curved and the quotient