pas. Each zupa consisted of a fortified town or inclosure, with its citadel, and the adjacent fields belonging to the inhabitants. The chief officer of the citadel was the castellan, or zupan; in the town, the chief officer was the justice or squire, who, together with the sheriff, constituted the judiciary. In criminal cases, the whole town was held responsible, it being the duty of all the male inhabitants to go in pursuit of the criminal and bring him to justice; in default of which they were subject to a heavy fine. Cities with corporate towns were unknown until after the age of Ottokar II. The fortress connected with the town was built upon a plain, with easy access to water, since, in times of danger, it was the place of refuge for the inhabitants, together with their cattle. It is estimated that there were about forty such fortified towns in Bohemia. In addition to these, there were fortresses built by the wealthy land-owners or noblemen, for the protection of their families and dependents. These were usually built upon precipitous heights, where a small body of men could defend themselves against a superior force. There were also yillages built upon the estates of the noblemen.
The people very early began to be divided into classes. Those that owned land were a sort of aristocracy, and were called zemans. A part of these zemans were the nobility; but it is not possible to state exactly what was the difference between a common zeman and a nobleman. In general, it may be said that those zemans that were able to fit out a small body of men to aid their prince in time of war, constituted the nobility; while those that were obliged to go as soldiers themselves were the plebeians. Both
