416 history or the estimate as the Clouds of Aristophanes. Was Socrates really, perhaps only in the earlier part of his career, the fantastic dreamer and sceptical sophist which this piece makes him ? And if it is certain that he was not, is not Aristophanes a common slanderer, a buffoon, who, in the vagaries of his humour, presumes to attack and revile even what is purest and noblest ? Where remains his solemn promise never to make what was right the object of his comic satire ? If there be any way of justifying the character of Aristophanes, as it appears to us in all his dramas, even in this hostile encounter with the noblest of philosophers; we must not attempt, as some modern writers have done, to convert Aristophanes into a profound philosopher, opposed to Socrates ; but we must be content to recognize in him, even on this occasion, the vigilant patriot, the well-meaning citizen of Athens, whose object it is by all the means in his power to promote the interests of his native country, so far as he is capable of under- standing them. As the piece in general is directed against the new system of education, we must first of all explain its nature and tendency. Up to the time of the Persian war, the school-education of the Greeks was limited to a very few subjects. From his seventh year, the boy was sent to schools in which he learned reading and writing, to play on the lute and sing, and the usual routine of gymnastic exercises.* In these schools it was customary to impress upon the youthful mind, in addition to these acquirements, the works of the poets, especially Homer, as the foundation of all Greek training, the religious and moral songs of the Ip-ic poets, and a modest and decent behaviour. This instruction ceased when the youth was approaching to manhood; then the only means of gaining instruction was intercourse with older men, listening to what was said in the market-place, where the Greeks spent a large portion of the day, taking a part in public life, the poetic contests, which were connected with the religious festivals, and made generally known so many works of genius ; and, as far as bodily training was concerned, frequenting the gymnasia kept up at the public expense. Such was the method of edu- cation up to the Persian war ; and no effect was produced upon it by the more ancient systems of philosophy, any more than by the historical writings of the period, for no one ever thought of seeking the elements of a regular education from Heraclitus or Pythagoras, but whoever applied himself to them did so for his life. With the Persian war, however, according to an important observation of Aristotle, f an entirely new striving after knowledge and education developed itself among the Greeks ; and subjects of instruction were established, which soon exer- cised an important influence on the whole spirit and character of the
i; youfiuxTifrov, I; xibteifTov, I: iraihreifieu. f Alistot. Pcht. viii. 6.
