ments. Though designed for the same purpose, and performed in the same situation, Cavaliere's oratorio was eminently different in character from those of his predecessor; its form was dramatic, and it was represented with scenic decorations, and with action, and even dances accompanied the choruses. Thus, as Animuccia founded the ecclesiastical oratorio—most nobly exemplified in the Passions-Musik of Bach—so the work under consideration originated the dramatic oratorio; of which Handel's Samson, and like productions, are familiar specimens. In this composition the newly-invented recitative forms a prominent feature; but though we find in this the germ of that grand style of declamation which Handel brought to perfection, its merit admits of no comparison with that of the masterpieces the last century and a half have produced. "La Rappresentazioni di Anima e di Corpo" has not only accompaniments for instruments independent of the voices—which at that period were most uncommon—but also a figured bass, from which the performer on the harpsichord improvised a counterpoint. In this respect it agrees with an opera by Peri and Caccini, bearing the same date, and containing, as this does, an explanation of the figures. We thus learn that the practice—always ineffectual, and now happily obsolete—of employing this form of musical shorthand, instead of writing the notes to be played, originated at this period, if not with these composers. Cavaliere was also the first to write, and perhaps the inventor of, the embellishments of the turn and the shake, of which Alessandro Guidotti, the editor of the "Rappresentazioni di Anima e di Corpo," gives a careful description in his preface to this work.—G. A. M.
CAVALIERI, Bonaventura, a famous mathematician, was born at Milan in 1598. At the age of fifteen he entered the order of the hieronymites, and at first studied theology; but his taste for geometry soon manifested itself, and he removed to the college of his order at Pisa that he might have better opportunities of instruction. Here he was introduced to Galileo, and soon became one of his most distinguished pupils. He devoted special attention to the determination of areas and volumes contained by curved lines and surfaces, and finally invented a mode of procedure known as the "method of indivisibles," which very much shortened the process till then in use, and was preliminary to the differential calculus. On the recommendation of Galileo he was made professor of mathematics in the university of Bologna, which he filled till his death in 1647. He died of gout, from which he had been a great sufferer during his life; in the ardour with which he prosecuted his favourite studies, he found, it is said, more relief from pain than in the nostrums of physicians. His "Geometry of Indivisibles" was published at Bologna in 1635. The subject was eagerly taken up by the best mathematicians of the day, including Pascal, who made considerable use of it. Cavalieri published a defence and exposition of his method in the year of his death, under the title of "Exercitationes Geometricæ Sex," Bologna, 1647.—J. D. E.
CAVALLI, Francesco, a musician, was born at Venice in 1610, where probably he died in April, 1676; at least Monferrato was appointed his successor at the duomo on the 30th of that month. His family name appears to have been Calletto, the reason for the change of which is unknown. He was famous as a singer, still more as an organist, and most of all as a dramatic composer. The first of his operas seems to have been "Le Nozze di Teti e di Peleo," dated 1639; and the last, "Coriolano," dated 1669. It has been stated, and frequently repeated, that in his opera of "Giasone," dated 1649, is the earliest instance of an aria so defined by title, and distinguished by rhythmical regularity from the recitative, in which the entire dialogue of the first lyrical dramas was conducted; but Monteverde anticipated him in this important feature of dramatic music. He held for some time an appointment at the court of the elector of Bavaria. In 1660 he went to Paris by invitation of Cardinal Mazarin, where he produced, on the occasion of the marriage of Louis XIV., his opera of "Xerxe," which had been given in Italy six years earlier. In 1668 he succeeded Rovetta as maestro di capella at the cathedral of St. Mark in his native city. His many operas were greatly esteemed in his own time, and several of them remained upon the stage long after his death. A piece from his opera of "Eismena" is printed in Burney's History.—G. A. M.
CAVALLINI, Pietro: this eminent old painter was born at Rome in 1279. He is believed to have been a pupil of Giotto; his style undoubtedly follows that master, and with Giotto he worked in mosaic in the navicella of St. Peters. He practised his art with an enthusiasm that was quite devotional; according to some accounts the number of his works amounted to 1300. His industry was only equalled by his piety; his life was so ascetically exemplary that he was within a few inches of being canonized. In fact, he was as good as a saint, if he were not one, and some of his handiworks performed miracles in the most orthodox and saintly manner. A crucifix wrought by him was gifted with speech, and a figure of the Virgin, of his carving (for he was a sculptor also) performed some very extraordinary feats. His most remarkable work was his fresco of the "Crucifixion" in the lower church of San Francesco at Rome, a wonderful vestige of Giotto-esque art. The relics of this artist are few and fragmentary, and much doubt and discussion cling to every portion of his history and his works. By some he is reputed to have contributed the designs of the house of Edward the Confessor in Westminster abbey, and also the crosses in memory of Queen Eleanor. There are some anachronistic stumbling-blocks in the path of this notion however. He probably died in 1364.—W. T.
CAVALLO, Tiberius, a distinguished electrician, born at Naples in 1749; died at London in 1809. He was sent to London to acquire a knowledge of commerce in 1771, but being of a studious turn, was diverted from mercantile to scientific pursuits, and finally relinquished the former altogether. He made some interesting researches in the science of electricity, and invented some useful instruments. In 1779 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society of London. His principal work is a "Complete Treatise of Electricity," 1777; enlarged and republished in 1795. He wrote also "An Essay on the Theory and Practice of Medical Electricity," 1780; and "Elements of Natural and Experimental Philosophy," 1803.—J. B.
CAVAM-ED-DOWLAH (Elevated in the State), the title of a Turkish prince frequently called Carbonas and Cammoran, but whose real name was Ketboga, who lived in the time of the first crusades. After the death of Malek Shah, he supported Barkyaroc, the eldest son of that prince, against his uncle, Tatash, but was worsted in the conflict, and taken prisoner. Tatash died soon after, however, and Ketboga recovered his liberty. He was subsequently made prince of Mosul, and at the head of an immense force blockaded the army of the crusaders in Antioch, but was signally defeated by them (June 28, 1098), and driven out of Syria. He died in 1101.—J. T.
CAVANILLES, Antonio José, a celebrated Spanish botanist and ecclesiastic, was born at Valencia on 10th January, 1745, and died at Madrid in May, 1804. His parents were poor. He received his first education among the Jesuits of Valencia. He subsequently turned his attention to theology and philosophy. He removed to Murcia, and was appointed by the duke de l'Infantado to superintend the education of his sons. In 1777 he accompanied the family to Paris, where he continued for twelve years. During that period he had an opportunity of studying natural history, and particularly botany, to which subject he afterwards devoted much of his time. His botanical writings extend from 1785 to 1790. His earliest botanical work consisted of dissertations on plants belonging to the class monadelphia. included figures and descriptions of species and genera of malvaceæ, sterculiaceæ, and geraniaceæ, as well as of passiflora and other plants having their stamens united by the filaments. The work extended to ten fasciculi, and was published partly in Paris and partly in Madrid. The number of plates is 296. Cavanilles also published figures and descriptions of plants which grow naturally in Spain, or are cultivated in gardens in that country. The work extends to six volumes, and contains many interesting plants from Mexico, Peru, and Chili, as well as from New Holland and the Philippine Islands. Among his other works may be noticed—"A Treatise on the Natural History, Geography, and Agriculture of the Kingdom of Valencia," 1795, 2 vols.; "Observations on the article 'Spain,' in the new Encyclopædia;" and contributions to the Madrid Annals of Natural Sciences. Cavanilles was elected a corresponding member of the French Institute; and in 1801 he was appointed director of the royal botanic garden at Madrid. He afterwards published "Elementary Principles of Botany," and a description of the plants used in his public lectures. At the time of his death he was engaged in the preparation of his "Hortus Regius Matritensis," which was to contain descriptions of rare or curious plants in the garden or herbarium at Madrid. The genus Cavanillea was named after him by Thunberg.—J. H. B.
