and granted him the investiture of the duchy of Milan, with the hand of his niece, the daughter of the king of Denmark, and by force of arms compelled the Florentines to submit to the restoration of the Medici. After the publication of the treaty of peace, 1st January, 1530, he was solemnly crowned by the pope at Bologna, king of Lombardy and emperor of the Romans.
Charles now turned his attention to the state of Germany, where the reformed doctrines had gained much ground; nearly one half of the German body indeed had thrown off the papal yoke, and the emperor, who was a zealous supporter of the Romish faith, saw that prompt and vigorous measures alone could prevent the entire revolt of Germany from the papal see. A diet of the empire was therefore held at Spires, March 15, 1529, at which a decree was carried by a majority against the reformed doctrines. The elector of Saxony, the marquis of Brandenburg, and other princes, along with the deputies of fourteen free cities, entered their protest against this decree, and thenceforward were distinguished by the name of "Protestants"—an appellation which has since been given to all who have abandoned the Romish faith. Charles made various attempts to gain over both the protestant divines and princes, but without success. He resolved, therefore, to adopt vigorous measures for the suppression of the reformed doctrines, and induced the diet of Augsburg to issue a decree condemning the peculiar tenets held by the protestants, and forbidding any person to protect or tolerate those who taught them. Alarmed at this step, which convinced them that the emperor was resolved on their destruction, the protestant princes assembled at Smalkalde, and concluded a league of mutual defence against all aggressors, and soon after sent ambassadors to the kings of France and England, to entreat their assistance. The determined front presented by the protestant confederacy, together with the precarious state of his relations with Francis, Henry, and the Sultan, convinced Charles that he had acted with imprudent haste in provoking the enmity of a body so united and vigorous. He therefore made overtures to the elector of Saxony and his associates, that, after some difficulties and delays, terminated in the pacification of Nuremberg, by which it was agreed that no person should be molested on account of his religion. The protestants, grateful for this concession, raised a powerful body of troops to assist in repelling an invasion of the Sultan Soliman, who had entered Hungary with three hundred thousand men, and Charles took the field in person in 1532 at the head of a numerous and well-disciplined army, which compelled the invaders to retreat to Constantinople. Shortly after, the emperor undertook an expedition to Africa, vanquished Barbarossa, king of Algiers, re-established Muley Hassem on the throne of Tunis, and set at liberty twenty thousand christian slaves. On his return to Europe Charles found himself involved once more in hostilities with Francis, who had seized the dominions of the duke of Savoy, the emperor's ally, and again laid claim to the duchy of Milan, which had become vacant by the death of Sforza in 1535. Charles, after launching against his rival a manifesto filled with bitter invectives, invaded Provence at the head of a formidable army and laid siege to Marseilles; but was completely baffled by the prudent tactics of the marechal de Montmorency, and was ultimately compelled to retreat with the loss of one half of his troops by disease or famine. Next year (1537) Francis in his turn invaded the Low Countries and took several towns, but hostilities in that quarter were speedily terminated by a truce for ten months, though the war continued to rage for some time longer in Piedmont, till a truce for ten years was ultimately concluded at Nice, June 18, 1538.
It soon became evident that hostilities had continued so long as nearly to exhaust the emperor's resources. His troops broke out into open mutiny, on account of the vast arrears of pay which were due to them, and the greater part of them had to be disbanded. His Spanish subjects too complained loudly of the load of taxes with which they were oppressed, and the Cortes at length refused to vote the supplies which Charles demanded. After employing in vain arguments and entreaties to induce them to comply with his wishes, he indignantly dismissed them, and from that time called neither nobles nor prelates to these assemblies, but only the deputies of the eighteen cities, who were entirely subservient to the crown. The inhabitants of the Netherlands also complained of the exactions made upon them for the purpose of carrying on the ambitious schemes of the emperor; and in 1539 the citizens of Ghent, enraged at the violation of their ancient privileges, and the arrogance with which they were treated by the emperor and his deputy, took up arms against their sovereign, invited the assistance of the other towns of Flanders, and even went the length of making overtures to the French king. The insurrection assumed so alarming an aspect that Charles, who was then in Spain, and eager to repair in person to the spot, asked from Francis permission to pass through France on his way to Flanders, assuring him at the same time, that he would soon settle the affair of the Milanese to his entire satisfaction. Francis gave implicit credit to this assurance, and at once granted the request of his rival, and received him with the greatest honours. The unfortunate citizens of Ghent, left entirely without support, were compelled to surrender at discretion. Notwithstanding their claims on the forbearance of their sovereign, they were treated with the greatest severity, their privileges and immunities were declared to be forfeited, their revenues confiscated, and twenty-six of their leaders were executed, and a greater number banished (1540.) But Charles having thus gained his end, first eluded the demands of Francis, and then peremptorily refused to fulfil the promises he had made respecting the Milanese—a breach of faith which has left a deep stain upon his character.
In 1541 Charles undertook an expedition against Algiers, though warned by his old admiral, Andrea Doria, of the dangerous nature of the enterprise. The voyage proved tedious and hazardous, but he succeeded in landing his army near Algiers without opposition, and began the siege of the city. A dreadful storm, however, destroyed the greater part of his ships with their crews, his troops were cut off by disease and the incessant attacks of the Arabs, and at last he was compelled to abandon his artillery and baggage, and re-embark with the remnant of his forces; and after having been tossed about for weeks by contrary winds, with great difficulty he reached his own dominions. In the following year, war again broke out between the emperor and the French king, in consequence of the barbarous murder of two ambassadors of Francis by the marquis del Guasto, governor of Milan. The first campaign was attended with alternate success and reverses on both sides. In the second, the imperialists were defeated with great slaughter by the duke d'Enghien, at Cevisolles in Piedmont. On the other hand, Charles invaded Champagne, and took several towns, and Henry VIII., his ally, entered Picardy in 1544; but nothing of much importance was effected, and as both parties needed peace, a treaty was soon after concluded between Charles and Francis at Crespi (1545.)
The conclusion of peace with France left Charles at liberty to put into execution the scheme which he had formed for the overthrow of the protestant party in Germany. He employed various artifices, however, to deceive the reformers, and to lull them into a state of security, until his plans were ripe for execution; when he at once threw off the mask, and prepared to maintain by force of arms the claims of the papal see. The protestants, on becoming aware of their danger, sought assistance from the Venetians, the Swiss, and the kings of England and France, but without success. Though left single-handed, however, to fight the battle of religious liberty, and deprived of the assistance of Maurice of Saxony, and others of their own number who had been gained over by the artifices of Charles, they succeeded in assembling in a few weeks a numerous and well-appointed army, and took the field in 1546 under Frederick, elector of Saxony, and the landgrave of Hesse. But the slow and dilatory movements of the elector showed his unfitness for the position which he occupied. His own dominions, which, when he took the field, he committed to the protection of Maurice, were treacherously seized by that prince, who, though a protestant, and the son-in-law of the landgrave of Hesse, sided with the emperor, in the hope of being rewarded for his support at the expense of the confederates. The death of Francis at this juncture freed the emperor from all apprehensions of a diversion on the side of France. The league fell to pieces, and the Saxons were completely defeated at Muhlberg; the elector himself was taken prisoner, treated with great harshness, and deprived of his electorate, which was bestowed upon his perfidious kinsman Maurice. Charles sullied his success, both by his duplicity and his ungenerous treatment of the elector and also of the landgrave of Hesse, whom he treacherously detained a prisoner when he had repaired to the imperial camp in reliance on the emperor's safe conduct. This perfidious act excited general
