furnished by himself, and, in fact, somewhat belied its name, being rather an eclectic comprehension of all schools than a representation of the one indicated in its title. He contemplated the translation of Gerber's Musical Biography; but he took M. Fayolle into co-operation with him, to whom, in the end, he confided the entire work, with the exception of some original articles, and a long introductory essay. This book appeared in 1810 and 1811. In 1812 Choron was commissioned to form a plan for the reorganization of cathedral choirs, the success of which led to his appointment as director of the music for religious fétes and ceremonies. A want of prompt facility, which was a natural consequence of the late commencement of his artistic studies, occasioned him considerable embarrassment in the discharge of this office; by unceasing assiduity, however, he made up for this impediment, and effected a most important reformation in the department intrusted to him. Many circumstances, and perhaps some prejudice, had made him always opposed to the conservatoire; but when this institution, which had been founded by the republic, was dissolved upon the restoration, Choron was intrusted to draw up a system for an establishment to replace it, and the école de chant et de declamation, which has since been developed into the present conservatoire, was formed under his superintendence. In 1816 he was appointed director of the opera, which office he held for little more than a year. His scheme for bringing forward the talent of untried artists, by allowing such to write one-act operas for the theatre, was deemed a greater boon for these composers than for the public, and his management was generally unpopular. He next conceived a design of an extensive institution for instruction in choral singing, and, after great difficulty, obtained a grant from government for its support. For the purposes of this establishment, he published in 1818 his "Méthode Concertante de Musique à quatre parties," a work admirably appropriate to its object, and the new school, under the name of the Conservatoire de musique classique et religieuse, was opened under Choron's exclusive direction. He now performed an extraordinary art-pilgrimage through the southern provinces to obtain disciples for his seminary, seeking fine voices among all classes of the people, but especially among the peasantry, whose robust constitution is generally favourable to the development of the vocal organs. Besides the efficacy of his system, his personal manner in its administration, and the untiring energy with which he discharged this, produced the most admirable results. Many as were the occupations of his ever active mind, this institution became his chief object of attention, and when, after the revolution of 1830, in the rearrangement of affairs, the grant for its support was so greatly diminished, as virtually to put an end to its operations, Choron's vexations preyed upon him to the extent of undermining his health, and eventually bringing him to the grave. As a composer, he was so successful in "La Sentinelle," one of a set of romances published in 1806, that this has become a popular national song throughout France. All his subsequent publications, however, were for the uses of the church, or practicable exercises in extension of his "Méthode Concertante," and they are highly accredited for the profundity of their style and the purity of their counterpoint. As a theorist, his translation of the works of Albrechtsberger, with copious comments; his translation of the treatise of F. Azopardi; and his many original, critical, and elementary writings, entitle him to be classed above any of his countrymen; at least, if he produced little that was new upon the subject of his art, he exhibited a most profound and comprehensive knowledge of its principles as set forth by previous writers, and an excellent skill in expounding them.—G. A. M.
CHOSROES. See Arsaces.
CHOSROES I. and II. See Khosru.
CHOUDJAA-ED-DOULAH or SUJAH DOWLAH, surnamed Djelaled-Dyn-Hayder, Nabob of Oude, and Vizier of the monarchy of Hindostan, was born at Delhi in 1729. He was a greedy, cowardly, and cruel tyrant, and his memory has been preserved mainly by his connection with Lord Clive and Warren Hastings. He succeeded his father in 1754, and one of his first acts was the assassination of the governor of Allahabad who had shown a desire to get rid of his yoke. The English were regarded by him with intense hatred, as rapacious usurpers; and he speedily drew down their displeasure by affording shelter to Meer Cossim, who fled to Oude for refuge after the massacre of his English prisoners, which, as Macaulay remarks, "surpassed in atrocity that of the Black Hole." The Company determined to punish him for this hostile proceeding, but he anticipated them by a declaration of war in 1763, and penetrated to the environs of Patna, which the English were obliged to evacuate. Next year, however (October 22), Major, afterwards Sir Hector Munro, with a force of seven thousand sepoys and English, attacked at Buxhar the army of the nabob, consisting of forty thousand men, and defeated them, with the loss of two thousand men and one hundred and thirty-three pieces of artillery. A second defeat was inflicted upon him and his Mahratta allies at Calpi, by General Carnac, on the 3d of May, 1765, and Sujah-Dowlah, finding farther resistance hopeless, surrendered to the victors on the 19th of May. Lord Clive, by whom the terms of peace were ratified, allowed the nabob to retain possession of his dominions (with the exception of Allahabad and Corah, which were assigned to the Mogul), on condition that he should pay fifty lacs of rupees, as the expenses of the war, and give no further shelter to Meer Cossim, or the German soldier, Sumroo. In 1773 the nabob cast a covetous eye upon the Rohilla country, and entered into an agreement with Warren Hastings, by which he stipulated to pay forty lacs of rupees, on condition that the English troops should assist "in the conquest and extermination of the Rohillas." In fulfilment of this most infamous compact, a British force, under Colonel Champion, invaded the Rohilla territories in 1774, in conjunction with Sujah-Dowlah. A bloody battle took place on the 23d of April. The dastardly nabob speedily took to flight, and left the British to fight single-handed; but after an obstinate struggle the Rohillas were defeated, and their gallant chief, Hafiz Rhamet, was slain. The nabob inflicted the most shocking cruelties on the conquered nation. Men, women, and children were given up to the sword, and the country was reduced to a desert. This transaction has left a deep stain on the character of Hastings and of the British government. Sujah-Dowlah died in 1775.—(See Mill's History of British India, vol. iii., and Macaulay's Essay on Warren Hastings.)—J. T.
CHRESTIEN, Florent, born at Orleans in 1541; died at Vendôme in 1596. He was tutor of Henri of Navarre, afterwards Henri IV. of France. There are several works of Florent Chrestien in verse and prose; tragedies, original and translated; Greek epigrams; a translation of the Quatrains of Pibrac into Greek and Latin; satires against Ronsard; and he assisted in satire Menippée, though his parts are not now known. He translated Hero and Leander from the Greek of Musæus, and also Oppian's book on hunting. His knowledge of Greek was very accurate for the period. He followed the example of the king in becoming a member of the church of France. The fancy of taking Latin names was frequent in Chrestien's day, and he called himself Quintus Septimius Christianus—Quintus as the youngest of five brothers, and Septimius as being a seventh month's child.—J. A., D.
CHRESTIEN or CHRESTIEN de Troyes, a French poet. Neither the date of his birth or death is known with certainty; he appears not to have died till within the last four or five years of the twelfth century. We find him described as "orateur et chroniqueur" of Madame Jeanne, comtesse of Flanders. He wrote several romances in verse, most of which exist in manuscript in the bibliotheque imperiale. A good many of the stories of the Round Table are told by Chrestien, and as far as we can judge by the extracts given in the Histoire Litteraire de la France are amusingly told The incidents are those familiar to all readers of romances—"fierce wars and faithful lovers—forests and enchantments drear." Some of his romances were translated into prose, and in this form probably gave higher pleasure to a larger number of persons, than had heard the verses of the original said or sung. Perceval le Gallois—a prose version of Chrestien's rhyming legend—printed in folio in 1530, was a volume at one time greatly treasured.—J. A., D.
CHRISTIAN, Edward, chief justice of the isle of Ely, and Downing professor of the laws of England in the university of Cambridge, died in 1823. He is the author of an edition of Blackstone, and of several legal dissertations of great merit.
CHRISTIANA, duchess-regent of Savoy, daughter of Henry IV. of France, and Maria de Medicis, was born in 1606, and married in 1619 Victor Amadeus, duke of Savoy. Before his death in 1627, the duke appointed Christiana regent, and guardian of her children. Her regency was one continued scene of troubles and disturbances excited mainly by the cupidity of the French court, who sought to take advantage of her unpro-
