necessity of defending Rome itself from the French invasion, backed by the armies of Austria, Spain, and Naples. During all the dangers of the siege, Armellini, though a very old man, remained faithful to his principles, and calmly fulfilled the duties of his office, watching over the administration of the legal tribunals, and occupying himself in the compilation of a new legislative code. He remained in Rome to the last, and did not hesitate to expose himself even to the enemy's fire, by accompanying his fellow triumvirs to assist in the last council of war, held at the head-quarters of General Garibaldi, on the heights of San Pancrazio. On the fall of Rome, Armellini went into exile, and resided with his son, also an exile, in retirement at Brussels. The papal government was withheld from confiscating his property by the interposition of the French ambassador. To the last he remained unaltered in his attachment to republican principles, and unshaken in his faith in the approaching regeneration of his country.—E. A. H.
ARMENINI, Gio. Batista, an Italian painter, a native of Faenza, living in 1587, at which date he published his "Veri precetti della Pittura," (True Precepts of Painting,) a work of some merit. He was a pupil of Perin del Vaga.
ARMESSIN, Nicolas de l', a French engraver of great merit, born in 1684; died in 1745. He was the son and pupil of another distinguished engraver of the same name, whom he, however, surpassed, especially with his fine reproductions of the works of Watteau and Boucher.—R. M.
ARMFELT, Gustaf Mauritz, Baron, a Swedish general, was born at Juva, in Finland, on the 1st April, 1757. He enjoyed the confidence of Gustavus III., and on the breaking out of the Russian war in 1788, was appointed to command one of the three divisions of the army. On the death of Gustavus in 1792, Armfelt was named governor of Stockholm, and a member of the regency. In this latter character he incurred the resentment of the president, Charles, duke of Sudermania, uncle of the young king, Gustavus IV., and was easily persuaded to accept an embassy to Naples. During his absence, he was condemned as a traitor. He fled into Russia, and afterwards resided in Germany, whence he was recalled, after the coronation of Gustavus IV., in 1799. Various important services were rendered by him to the state from that time till 1810, when a suspicion of his having been concerned in the death of the prince of Augustenburg, again obliged him to seek refuge in Russia. The remainder of his life was passed in that country in the enjoyment of almost princely dignities. He died at Tzarskoe-Selo, on the 19th August, 1814.—J. S., G.
ARMFELT, Karl, Baron d', a Swedish general, born 1666; died 1736. He fought under Charles XII. After the battle of Pultowa he defended Helsingfors against Peter, and subsequently engaged Apraxin with 6000 men against 18,000. He commanded the well-known expedition to Norway, in which his troops suffered great disasters.
ARMIN or ARMYN, Robert, a player of Shakspeare's company, whose name occurs with that of Shakspeare in a certificate of 1589. A tract in the Bodleian library has the following title, "A Nest of Ninnies. Simply of themselves, without compound. Stultorum plena sunt omnia. By Robert Armin," 1608. He is also the author of a comedy entitled "The History of the Two Maids of More Clacke."—J. S., G.
ARMINIUS or HERMANN, the deliverer of Germany from the power of Rome, was the son of Sigimer, chief of the Cherusci, and born probably in the year 16 b.c. The enterprise which he carried on to so triumphant an issue, was begun in a.d. 9, when Varus, little alive to the dangers of his position, had awakened the fierce hatred of thraldom which characterized the German tribes, by innovations on local customs in the last degree offensive. In that year he persuaded the Roman general to march into the country between the Weser and Ems, which he said had revolted, and on the way harassed him with such success, that on the third day he could offer battle. In a narrow defile between the towns of Wiedenbruck and Detmold, the Roman legions, hemmed in on all sides, were slaughtered almost to a man. Varus threw himself on his sword. In the years 14-17, Cæsar Germanicus, although successful in several engagements, vainly endeavoured to recover the territories lost by this disaster. Arminius survived till a.d. 21. He is said to have been assassinated by some of his kinsmen.—J. S., G.
ARMINIUS, Fulgentius, bishop of Nusco; flourished towards the end of the seventeenth century. He published:—1. "Gli immortali Cipressi; descrizione de Funerali d'Ant. Carrafa, duca d' Andriæ," 1645; 2. "Le pompe della morte per la morte di Cornelia, Giudici, duchessa di Bisaccio," 1647; and several other works of a similar character.
ARMINIUS, Jacobus, the celebrated founder of the theological system called after him, Arminianism, was born at Oudewater, on the Yssel, in South Holland, in 1560. His family name was Harmensen, or in its German form, Hermann. From the name of his native place, denoting "old water," he was sometimes called "Veteraquinas." His father died while he was yet a boy, but by the assistance of several friends, who had a high opinion of his talents, he was enabled to prosecute his studies in Utrecht, Marburg, Leyden, and Geneva. At Leyden he enjoyed the instructions of Lambert Danæus; and in Geneva, of Theodore Beza. He taught, for some time, in the university of Basle, and with so much applause that he was offered the degree of doctor of divinity, when he was only in his twenty-second year, which, however, he modestly declined. After a visit to the university of Padua, and a short sojourn in Rome, he returned to Holland. The fame of his talents and learning had preceded him, and in 1588 he was appointed by the magistrates of Amsterdam one of the preachers of that city, in which office he continued, with increasing reputation, for the next fifteen years.
Arminius had early evinced a strong tendency to introduce innovations into established systems. During his residence in Geneva, he had given great offence to the Aristotelians by his advocacy of the new rival philosophy of Peter Ramus; and he had not been long in Amsterdam when his love of novelty in speculation, and the restlessness of his genius, led him to adopt theological views, which, by kindling the flames of a lengthened polemical warfare, involved the remainder of his life in great unhappiness, and ultimately convulsed and divided the protestant church of the United Provinces.
The doctrine of the Belgic confession, as adopted at the era of the Reformation, was strictly Calvinistic, but a layman named Dirick Volkaerts had recently attacked it in a series of writings, which had drawn down upon him the sentence of heresy. In the controversy excited by these attacks, the defenders of the doctrine of the Confession had also recently become divided among themselves i nto two parties—the smaller called the "Sublapsarians," the larger still adhering to the "Supralapsarian" views of Beza. Arminius was engaged by some admirers of his talents to defend the doctrine of Geneva in opposition to the views both of Volkaerts and the Sublapsarians; and it was while engaged in the studies necessary to this undertaking that he began to waver in his attachment to that doctrine, and to think that the truth lay on the side of its opponents. For a time, however, he concealed his new convictions; and it was only gradually that they discovered themselves in his pulpit expositions of such testing passages of scripture as the seventh and ninth chapters of the Epistle to the Romans. His orthodoxy had already been publicly challenged, when in 1603, on the death of Francis Junius, professor of divinity at Leyden, Arminius was appointed to succeed to his chair. Before his installation, Francis Gomar, his future colleague, demanded an explanation of his doctrinal views, and allowed himself to be satisfied by a public declaration, on the part of Arminius, that with Augustin, and other ancient teachers of the church, he rejected the corruptions of the Pelagian heresy. But it was not long before the two colleagues came into open collision. In 1604 Arminius charged the teaching of Gomar, on the subject of predestination, with a dangerous leaning to the heresy of the Manichæans, who made God the author of sin; while Gomar, in reply, accused Arminius of holding views which were more flattering to human pride than the doctrines of Rome itself—inasmuch as they represented man to be independent of the grace of God, in so important a matter as an inward ability and inclination for that which is good. A controversy, waged by antagonists of such eminence, instantly engaged the attention and divided the sympathies of the whole church and country; and during the brief remainder of his life, Arminius found himself exposed to incessant attacks which embittered his existence. To allay the strife, a general synod of the church was convened in 1606, and a public conference was held between Arminius and Gomar in 1608, but both these measures failed of the desired effect. The war was still raging when Arminius died, on the 19th October, 1609. Nor did it die with him. After his death his adherents pushed his peculiar views to extremes which, it is probable, he himself would have condemned; and the more
