paring several controversial documents drawn up by his party.—His eldest son, Edmund, born in 1635; died in 1685; was, like his father, a zealous nonconformist.—On the other hand, his son Benjamin, who was in 1677 chosen minister of his father's church of St. Mary's, Aldermanbury, was an adherent of the high church party, and author of "A Discourse about a Scrupulous Conscience," which attracted considerable notice in the controversy.—Edmund, born in 1671; died in 1732; son of the elder of these two brothers, followed his father and grandfather in a firm adherence to the nonconformist principles. He engaged in a lengthened controversy with Hoadly, afterwards bishop of Winchester, in which many books were published on both sides; but the works by which this writer is best remembered, are an "Abridgement of Baxter's History of his Life and Times," and "Lives of the Ministers ejected after the Restoration," intended as a continuation of Baxter's History.—J. B.
CALANCHA, Frey Antonio de la, a Peruvian ecclesiastic, born towards the end of the sixteenth century. Of an antiquarian turn, he visited the ruins and was a zealous collector of the ancient traditions of his country. Much of the information he thus gathered has been preserved in his work, entitled "Cronica Moralizada del orden de San Augustin en el Peru." This book was first published in Barcelona in 1639. Although diffuse in style, and running too much into detail, it has the rare merit of veracity. Calancha twice visited the ruins of the stupendous temple of Pachacamac.
CALANDRA, Giovanna Battista, born in 1586, achieved a considerable fame as a mosaicist, and worked in the Vatican during the pontificate of Urban VIII. The pictures in St. Peter's being seriously injured by damp, they were replaced by copies in mosaic. The first copy made by Calandra was after the St. Michael of d'Arpino. Calandra died in 1644.
CALANDRELLI. Giuseppe, an Italian astronomer, born in 1749; died at Rome in 1827. Abandoning the study of law, he gave himself wholly to physical and natural science, and in 1774 succeeded the celebrated Jacquier in the mathematical chair at Rome. He had charge, besides, of the observatory founded by Cardinal Trelada, and was one of those whom Pius VII., incited by the example of the French, appointed to make astronomical observations. In 1824 he had to abandon the Roman college to the jesuits, and retired to that of Santo Appollinare.
CALANDRINI, John Lewis, a Swiss botanist and mathematician, was born at Geneva in 1703, and died 30th December, 1758. He prosecuted his studies at Lausanne and London. He became professor of mathematics in 1724, of philosophy in 1734, and councillor of state in 1750. He has written various mathematical and scientific papers; among others, an essay on the vegetation and generation of plants.—J. H. B.
CALANUS, an Indian gymnosophist who attached himself to Alexander the Great. At Pasargada in Persia he fell ill, and refusing all medical aid, requested to be burned, that his immortal part might be free of the pains of the body. Alexander combated the fanatical purpose in vain, and at length ordered a magnificent pile to be erected, round which the army was drawn up. When Calanus was about to ascend, he, it is related, said to Alexander, "I shall see you soon in Babylon." This was r emembered when the conqueror died in that city not long after.
CALAS, John, born in 1698, a protestant citizen of Toulouse, whose shocking murder, under the forms of law, has served to perpetuate his memory. He had been forty years established in business in Toulouse, and was highly respected for his piety, integrity, and industrious habits. His eldest son, Marc Antoine, a melancholy youth, whose spirits had been depressed by a professional disappointment, hanged himself in his father's shop one night in the month of October, 1761. It was immediately rumoured that young Calas had intended to turn Romanist, and had in consequence been murdered by his family. The charge was in the highest degree improbable, and was not supported by a particle of evidence. But it was at once credited by the Roman catholic authorities and inhabitants of Toulouse, who had long been notorious for their bigotry and fanaticism, and every effort was made by the clergy and the authorities to stir up the passions of the populace against the unfortunate family. The forms of law were perverted in the most shameful manner, and in the end the parliament of Toulouse, on the 8th of March, 1762, condemned John Calas to be tortured by rack and by water, and then to be broken on the wheel. This atrocious sentence was executed the following day. Calas endured the protracted agonies of his sentence with astonishing fortitude, and to the last protested his innocence of the crime imputed to him. His wife and younger son were also tried as accomplices, along with La Vaisse, a friend who had supped with the family on the evening when the son committed suicide, and Jeanne Viguier, the maid-servant, who was a zealous Romanist. The son was sentenced to banishment, but the others were acquitted. Fortunately, the account of the judicial murder of Calas reached the ears of Voltaire, then residing at Ferney, and he spared neither time nor labour to procure a reversal of the sentence. The whole strength of the church was put forth to uphold the unjust deed, and it was powerfully aided by some of the ministers. But in the end truth and justice triumphed. The sentence of the parliament of Toulouse was annulled; a new trial was ordered, and terminated in completely establishing the innocence of the Calas family, 9th March, 1765. David de Beaudrigne, one of the "titular capitouls" of Toulouse, was deprived of his office, and committed suicide; but the other perpetrators of this atrocious murder were allowed to go unpunished.—(Causes Célbrès, vol. iv.; Jean Calas et sa Famille, &c., Par A. Coquerel Fils; Paris, 1858.)—J. T.
CALASIO, Mario de, a celebrated Hebraist, born in Abruzzo, near Aquila, in 1550. He entered the Franciscan order, and became Hebrew professor at Rome. He published a grammar and lexicon of his favourite language; but his great work, a Hebrew concordance of the Bible, the result of forty years' labour, was not published till 1621, the year after his death. An edition was published in London in 1747.—J. B.
CALATRAVA, José-Maria, a Spanish statesman, born at Merida in Estramadura in 1781; died in 1846. He was, in the outset of his career, a distinguished advocate at Badajoz, but was afterwards better known as a member of the cortes, to which he was three times elected deputy. In this capacity he showed himself an able and eloquent defender of public liberty. In 1823, and afterwards in 1837, he held for a brief period the portfolio of minister of justice. In 1843 he was raised to the dignity of senator.—G. M.
CALCAGNINI, Celio, an astronomer, archæologist, and poet, born at Ferrara in 1479; died in 1541. He served some years in the armies of the Emperor Maximilian and Pope Julius II., and after fulfilling a diplomatic mission to Rome, was appointed professor of belles-lettres in the university of Ferrara. In one of his astronomical dissertations, headed "Quomodo cœlum stet, terra moveatur," Calcagnini demonstrates with mathematical precision that the earth turns round the sun. His poetical compositions, in three books, are collected in the Deliciæ Poetarum Italorum. As an archæologist, and also as a miscellaneous prose writer, he holds a high place in Italian literature, although inferior to that assigned him as an astronomer and poet.
CALCAR or KALCKER, John van, was born at Calcar in the duchy of Cleves in 1499. From whom this artist received instruction in his own country is not known, but subsequently at Venice, he studied in the school of Titian, whose chief scholar he became. In time he was enabled so successfully to imitate the manner of his master, as even to have deceived the eminent Goltzius. His imitations of Raffaelle were almost as happy. His Venetian studies had completely ousted all traces of his original Flemish taste in art. His fame seems to be limited rather to his imitative talent. He was employed by Vasari on the portraits of the painters, &c., for his work. Rubens possessed a work by Calcar representing the Nativity, in which, it may be noted, that the light was made to emanate wholly from the child. This picture afterwards became the property of the Emperor Ferdinand. Calcar died in 1546.—W. T.
CALCEOLARI, CALZOLARIS, or CALCEOLARIUS, Francesco, an Italian naturalist, lived about the middle of the sixteenth century. He studied pharmacy at Verona under Ghini, and prosecuted natural history with enthusiasm. He became intimately acquainted with Mathiolus and Aldrovandus. In 1554 and subsequent years he examined the botany of Mount Baldo, along with Auguillara and the Bauhins. His researches were afterwards published at Venice, under the title of "Iter Baldi Montis." The genus calceolaria was named by Feuillée in honour of him.—J. H. B.
CALCHI, Tristram, an Italian historian, born at Milan in 1462; died in 1507 or 1516. On the death of his master, Giov. Merula, he was employed to continue his "History of the Viscomti."—Calchi found the work so inaccurate that he had to rewrite it.
