a robber. The pope excited a rebellion in Sicily, which was soon quelled in 1246; and in Germany he induced Henry, the landgrave of Thuringia, to set up as rival to Frederick. After Henry's death Frederick's superiority in Germany was so decided, that the pope could find nobody but Count William of Holland willing to claim the vacant crown. Frederick died in 1250; and the joy of the pope was soon at an end, for Conrad IV. put himself at the head of a large army, and conquered his Italian patrimony. The Two Sicilies were seized by Manfred, a natural son of Frederick, who established a popular government. Conrad died prematurely in 1254, and Manfred then made his submission, receiving from the pope a promise to respect the rights of Conradin, Conrad's infant son. But, seeing that Innocent had other designs, he marched against and defeated the papal army in 1254. Innocent died five days after at Naples. This pope tried in vain to reunite the Greek and Roman churches. At his request the cardinals first assumed the red hat. He wrote a commentary on the five books of Decretals; an Apologeticus against Frederick's chancellor, and letters.—S. D.
INNOCENT V. (Pietro di Taranto), born at Moustier in Savoy in 1225, had been archbishop of Lyons and cardinal bishop of Ostia. His election, as successor to Gregory, took place on the 21st January, 1276. He endeavoured to reconcile the countries and cities of Italy, distracted by the factions of the Guelphs and Ghibellines; and succeeded by his legates in bringing the republics of Lucca and Pisa into peace, and restoring quiet throughout Tuscany. While preparing to send an important embassy to the East, to Michael Palæologus, respecting the union of the Greek and Roman churches, he died the 22nd June, after being pope only five months. Innocent V. was the author of several works, the most important of which is a "Commentary on the four books of the Magistri Sententiarum," Toulouse, 1652. Various philosophical works also proceeded from his pen.—S. D.
INNOCENT VI. (Etienne Aubert), born, near Pompadour, in Limousin, bishop of Ostia, was raised to the papal chair, December 18, 1352. He resided at Avignon, was well versed in legal science, and a man of strict integrity. He succeeded in bringing back the estates of the church to obedience, and crowned Charles IV. in 1355. In taking Bologna from the powerful ruler of Milan he met with much opposition. His chief adviser and agent was Albornoz, the cardinal legate. Many of his measures were peaceful and praiseworthy, such as reconciling John of France and Edward of England, and terminating the wars waged between the Venetians and Genoese, and against the Turks. He was a friend to the mendicant monks, whom he reinstated in all their former privileges. Innocent died 12th September, 1362.—S. D.
INNOCENT VII. (Cosmo Megliorati), born at Sulmona in the Abruzzo in 1336, was chosen pope 17th October, 1404. Urban VI. had made him treasurer of the papal exchequer. He had also been archbishop of Ravenna, bishop of Bologna, cardinal, chamberlain of the Romish church, and legate to Boniface IX. Ladislaus, king of Naples, was put under the pontifical ban, and submitted. When Pope Benedict XIII., his rival, came to Genoa requesting a safe conduct from Innocent, the latter refused. The schism in the papacy therefore continued. Innocent died in 1406. He seems to have been a simple-minded and liberal man; but he was not free from the charge of nepotism. A discourse on the union of the Eastern and Western churches, with some letters, is all that we have of his writings.—S. D.
INNOCENT VIII. (Battista Cibo), born at Genoa in 1432, bishop of Melfi and cardinal, was elevated to the papal chair, 29th August, 1484, and commenced his reign by violating the stipulations against nepotism he had made at his election. He prosecuted against Naples two wars, setting up Renatus as rival to King Ferdinand; and while calling upon all Christendom to embark in a war against the Turks, he did not scruple to enter into negotiations with Bajazet II., becoming jailer of his banished brother. Thus he derived revenue both from christians and mahometans. Innocent VIII. was very severe against sorcerers, magicians, and witches; he appointed two head inquisitors for Upper Germany. He was equally severe against the Hussites in Bohemia. The last years of his reign were employed in creating new places for the purpose of enriching his coffers. He died 25th July, 1492. In consequence of the number of his children he was satirically termed the "father of his country." Disgraceful crimes marked the whole length of his reign. Profligacy, nepotism, perfidy, and reckless cupidity, combined to form a character which has scarcely one redeeming trait. It is said that he had sixteen illegitimate children to provide for.—S. D.
INNOCENT IX. (Giovanni Antonio Fachinetti), born at Bologna in 1519, succeeded Gregory XIV. on the 30th October, 1591. He had been bishop of Nicastro, papal nuncio to Venice, patriarch of Jerusalem, president of the inquisition, and cardinal. He forbade the alienation of all church property, interdicted debts, lowered the price of provisions, and wished to lighten the taxes. It was also his intention to clear out the harbour at Ancona to facilitate commercial intercourse, and to dig a canal in the vicinity of Engelsburg, in order to protect Rome from the overflowing of the Tiber. But death cut him off, after a reign of two months, December 30, 1591.—S. D.
INNOCENT X. (Giambatista Pamfili), was chosen successor to Urban VIII., September 15, 1644, on the ground that he had never said much and done less. He was born at Rome in 1572, and had filled several important offices before his elevation, which he owed to the Barberini. Yet his first proceeding was against that family, whose immense wealth he endeavoured to get possession of. When the Barberini fled to France, their palaces were occupied, their wealth sequestrated, and a constitution was published in 1646, in which it was enacted that cardinals who withdrew from the estate of the church without papal permission should lose their revenues, if they did not return within six months. In France this bull was pronounced invalid and null. The French succeeded in compelling the pope to reinstate the Barberini in their possessions and offices. In his quarrel with the duke of Parma, Innocent was more successful. The peace of Westphalia was a severe blow to him. After two protests of his nuncio were unheeded, he issued a bull in 1648, in which he declared the articles to be void. But his protest was useless. In 1653 the pope condemned five propositions of Jansen's. Extraordinary measures were taken by Innocent to enrich his coffers—extortions, impositions, the suppression of monasteries and sequestration of their revenues, the issuing of the Universalis maximique jubilæi of the year 1650, and above all, the entire monopoly of the trade in corn, which completely destroyed Roman agriculture. His dependence upon and intimate relations with Donna Olympia, widow of his brother, gave occasion to the taunt that the vicar of Christ was in petticoats, and that a new Joanna was in possession of St. Peter's keys. Innocent died the 5th January, 1655.—S. D.
INNOCENT XI. (Benedetto Odeschalci), was born at Como in 1611, enjoyed the benefit of instruction by the jesuits in his youth, and resorted to Genoa, Rome, and Naples, to study civil law. After distinguishing himself in various important offices by uprightness and prudence, he became a cardinal in 1647, through the influence of Olympia, and subsequently legate of Ferrara and bishop of Novara. He owed his elevation to the papal chair to the French party. Immediately after his election he adopted vigorous measures for the restoration of strict morals in church and state. It was his constant endeavour to save the finances; for which purpose he not only limited his own expenses to the most necessary things, but also employed cardinals' places and benefices for the same object. He renewed the regulations relating to the examination of persons about to fill ecclesiastical posts, recommending catechising in churches and school education; issued a bull against the employment of dialectic sophistry and fables in preaching, ordering the clergy to confine themselves in the pulpit to the preaching of Christ crucified and exhortations to repentance. Eunuchs he removed from the papal chapel. He also enacted strict rules against luxury and indecent dress on the part of ladies. In opposition to the morals of the jesuits he spoke emphatically in the bull of March 2, 1679. By abolishing the privilege which ambassadors had sometimes exercised of making their quarters at Rome an asylum where criminals could be safe, he came into conflict with France. The French ambassador, whose retinue amounted to a thousand men, entered Rome in defiance of Innocent; the latter refusing him an audience, and putting him under ban. Another ground of collision with the king of France arose from some bishops in France resisting the royal claim to administer the revenues of those churches which had not been founded by the crown during a vacancy in the diocese to which they belonged, and to appoint prebends dependent upon such vacancies. The pope countenanced their appeal. The king summoned a general assembly of the French clergy in 1681, which asserted the right of the crown in dispute, and propounded the Quatuor propositiones cleri Gallicani, a copy of
