talented, amorous actress, whom Justinian had married, is well known. It was she that prompted him to his long-continued but fruitless efforts to reunite the Monophysites with the orthodox church, and so guided his edicts that they were generally favourable to that party. She was also the occasion of the terrible insurrection of the two factions in the circus, the blues and greens, which almost overthrew his throne and certainly threatened his life, till it was quelled with bloody cruelty by Belisarius. Theodora favoured the blues. Externally, the power of the empire was widely extended, chiefly by the brilliant and successful wars of Justinian's generals, Belisarius and Narses. In the West the dominion of the Vandals was destroyed by Belisarius (534-35); Africa, Sardinia, and Corsica were conquered; Sicily and Italy were again united to the Byzantine empire, after the dominion of the Goths was destroyed by Belisarius and Narses. Part of the coast territory of Spain was also taken from the Goths. In the East, however, peace had to be repeatedly purchased from the Persian king, Nushirvan. The public buildings of Justinian were cemented with the blood and treasure of his people. Among them was the splendid cathedral of St. Sophia. A line of fortifications, however, served to protect the northern and eastern boundaries of the empire. Perhaps the best part of Justinian's fame is due to the code of civil law (Pandects), which he and his jurists digested from the treasures of Roman jurisprudence; and which has since been the source of legal science for all civilized nations. The reign of Justinian was both long and brilliant. In it the Roman dominion was restored to its former splendour by the arms of his generals. But his efforts to establish uniformity of religious opinion—a true system of orthodoxy for all future time—produced great mischief both to church and state. The emperor's character has been ably drawn by Gibbon.—S. D.
JUSTINIAN II., son of Constantine IV., Pogonatus, became emperor of Constantinople, while yet a boy, in 685. His reign is marked by little else than vice, cruelty, and revenge. After Leontius, a general of reputation, had been imprisoned three years, he was called forth to take the lead of the patriots who longed to deliver their country from a tyrant. Justinian was banished to Chersonæ in Crim Tartary, whence after three years' sojourn, hearing that Leontius had been deposed and Apsimar elevated in his place, he departed first to the Chozars, whose khan proved faithless; and then to the Bulgarians who promised him their aid. After ten years' absence he was restored; and proceeded to perpetrate the greatest cruelties against all his enemies. His implacable hatred to the Chersonites, to exterminate whom he sent a second expedition, led to his assassination in 711.—S. D.
JUSTINIANI. See Giustiniani.
JUSTINUS, Frontinus: we know nothing of Justin the historian except his "History." He is quoted by St. Jerome, and must have flourished before the beginning of the fifth century, but further than this we cannot assign a date to his work. It has come down to us in forty-four books under the title "Historiæ Philippicæ," with a preface in which the author informs us regarding its source and object. A certain Trogus Pompeius, who flourished in the time of Augustus, had written a larger work in the same number of books and under the same title, giving a detailed account of the rise and fall of the Macedonian monarchy, interspersed with digressions after the manner of Herodotus: thus embracing a considerable portion of the annals of Assyria, Persia, Greece, and Rome, with disquisitions and essays on various cities and minor states, whose fortunes, directly or indirectly, became connected with those of the dynasty of Macedon. Justin undertook to make a redaction of this "History;" mingling on no very definite plan extracts with abridgments, and giving in a condensed form what seemed to him the cream of the whole, "breve florum corpusculum." Justin's sole purpose was to produce a readable epitome of his predecessor's work; but, as frequently happens, the copy of a lost original has been preserved, and almost all we know of Pompeius is the result of the labours of Justin, which have handed down a variety of facts not to be found in the more famous annalists of the corresponding epochs. The best edition of Justin is that of Frobischer, to which is prefixed a learned dissertation by Heeren investigating the sources of the author's "History" and that of his prototype.—J. N
JUVARA or IVARA, Filippo, a celebrated Italian architect, was born at Messina about 1685, of an ancient but poor family; learned the rudiments of design under a brother; took ecclesiastical orders; and then proceeded to Rome, where he studied architecture under Fontana. His first employment was to decorate the Villa Ottoboni. When Victor Amadeus became king of Sardinia, he invited Juvara to build a palace at Messina, afterwards took him to Turin, appointed him his architect, and gave him the abbey of Salve. Juvara's principal buildings are at Turin. They include the royal hunting palace of Stupinigi; the Birago di Borgaro palace; the Royal basilica of La Superga, a circular edifice, the cupola of which is a conspicuous object in the general view of the city; the churches of the Carmelites, del Carmine, and that of the fathers of the oratory. At Milan he erected the façade of the church of S. Ambrogio; at Mantua he finished the cupola of S. Andrea; and at Como he made various additions to the cathedral. He went to Lisbon at the special request of the king in order to superintend the erection of the royal palace. So great indeed had his celebrity become, that on the destruction of the royal palace at Madrid by fire in 1734 Juvara was invited to design the new one. He accordingly went thither and prepared a design of extraordinary magnificence; but the national dilatoriness interposed obstacles, and Juvara died in 1735 of a violent fever brought on, it is believed, from vexation, before any steps had been taken for carrying his design into execution. The present building, a modification of his design, was erected by G. Sacchetti, a countryman of Juvara's, and on a scale of much less magnitude; yet it is pronounced by Ford to be even now "certainly one of the most magnificent palaces in the world." Juvara was a facile designer; but he had little refinement of taste, and his buildings are overlaid with the florid exuberances of the period.—J. T—e.
JUVENALIS, Decimus Junius: very little is known, and a great deal has been conjectured, regarding the life of the great satirist. The biography of Juvenal by Probus, attributed to Suetonius, and those which are the work of later scholastics, in many respects differing, agree in the following results—That the poet was born at Aquinum, the son of a rich freedman; that he was engaged in declamation "animi causa" up to nearly middle life; that among his earliest compositions were the lines upon Paris we find in Sat. vii. 86-91; that upon publishing those he was banished by order of the reigning histrio under Nero, Domitian, or Hadrian, to Egypt, where he lived in his old age very unhappily, and died either there or immediately after returning to Rome. Some lines of Sidonius Apollinaris, in which allusion is made to Ovid along with another exile banished by an actor, as well as the poet's own references to Egypt, are brought forward in support of an account which closer examination shows to be, in great measure at least, imaginary. The mention of Paris in connection with the poet Statins identifies him with the favourite mime of Domitian who died a.d. 83: the allusions to the death of Domitian (96) at the close of the fourth, and the condemnation of Marius Prisons (100) in the first satire, prove that Juvenal must have been living at least seventeen years after the date assigned to his banishment. It was hardly possible that he could have passed over a period of exile nearly twice as long as that which inspired the Tristia and the Pontic epistles of Ovid with nothing more than an incidental reference; while the statements regarding Egypt in the fifteenth satire are neither sufficiently minute nor accurate enough to make it probable that they were founded on any extensive personal observation. We know that Juvenal flourished during the last twenty years of the first, or the first twenty years of the second century; that Aquinum was, if not his native town, his favourite residence; that he numbered among his friends the epigrammatist Martial; was a severe censor of the corruptions of Rome under Domitian; and published his satires—to which the first in order, probably one of the latest in composition, forms a sort of introduction—some time or other during the reign of Hadrian. Further than this we know nothing. Roman satire—that original growth of Latin literature, beginning with the lampoons of Nævius and finding its earliest systematic form in the more studied invectives of Lucilius—took on the shape of good-humoured yet searching raillery in the hands of Horace; and after losing its spontaneity in the half philosophical half critical essays of a youthful advocate of the Stoics, found in the writings of Juvenal at once its consummation and its close. This master of the art, whose name has become a sort of synonyme for the species of composition which he represents, has many points of contrast as well as of contact with his predecessors. The differences which characterize the Roman satirists
