grasp." According to his political scheme, Germany should be remodelled into a federal state, and by an intimate and lasting alliance be united to Austria. This scheme Gagern, who in the meantime had been appointed prime minister of the empire, after a hard struggle induced the assembly to adopt. When, however, the assembly refused to accept the new constitution without debate, according to the motion of Welcker, 21st March, 1859, Gagern resigned his post, and on the 20th May seceded from the assembly. He afterwards took a prominent part in the assemblies at Gotha and Erfurt, but the reactionary policy of Prussia definitively frustrated the hopes of his party. Tired of ineffectual parliamentary debates, and deeply sorrowing for the humiliation of his country, Gagern, after the defeat of Idstedt, offered his sword to the duchies, and served as a major in their army till the end of the war. He has since lived in retirement, first at his estate, and latterly at Heidelberg.—K. E.
GAGES, Juan Buenaventura Thierry du Mont, Count of, a Spanish general, born in 1682 at Mons, the capital of Hainault. On the death of Charles II. he attached himself to the French party, and in 1702 entered the Spanish army. In almost all the battles of the Peninsula he distinguished himself; and at Villa Viciosa, in 1710, he captured three standards. On the death of his father in 1718, he seems to have definitively broken all the ties which bound him to Hainault. He served as lieutenant-general in the expedition to Minorca in 1740, and commanded the Spanish army in Italy in 1742. In this capacity he defeated the Austrians at Campo Santa, 8th February, 1743. His conduct of this campaign elicited the warm praise of Frederick II. of Prussia; it was rewarded in Spain by a patent of nobility and the order of the golden fleece in 1745; and the capture of Milan in December of that year justified the distinction. In 1746 he was compelled to retreat, after losing the battle of Campo Freddo; and in the same year, on the death of Philip V., he solicited and obtained his recall to Spain. He was nominated captain-general of Navarre in 1749; and the province is indebted to him for the excellent roads which distinguish it from many other parts of Spain. His administration was wise and generous; his private life marked by courtesy and benevolence. He died in 1753 at Pampeluna.—F. M. W.
GAGNÆUS, the Latinized name of a French divine, Jean de Gagni, born at Paris; died in 1549. He was successively a professor in the college de Navarre, rector of the university of Paris, 1531, reader, and then almoner, and preacher-in-ordinary to Francis I. The privileges of this last office he turned to account in the publication of numerous works in MS. to which no other scholar had access; and also in maintaining against all attempts at innovation the rights and dignity of the university. His commentary on the Romans is esteemed a learned and valuable work.—J. S., G.
GAGNIER, Jean, born at Paris about 1670; died in 1740; studied at the college of Navarre in Paris, and became a distinguished Hebrew and Arabic scholar. He went to England, conformed to the Church of England, took a degree in arts in Cambridge, afterwards in Oxford, and finally was appointed there professor of Oriental languages. He left several works, chiefly on subjects of Mahommedan history, on such subjects of philosophy as were connected with his professorship, and on controversial divinity.—J. A., D.
GAGUIN, Robert, born at Colonne-sur-le-Lys in 1425; died in a monastery, near Nieppe, in 1502. He was at an early age admitted into the order of the Trinitarians, and was sent by them to study theology in the university of Paris. He took degrees in canon law, and was appointed professor of that faculty. Gaguin was employed on several embassies, and conducted important negotiations during the reigns of Louis XI. and Charles VIII. He had a high character for eloquence. Several of his works relate to the theological controversies of the period in which he lived. He left several poems and historical tracts.—J. A., D.
GAHAGAN, Usher; date of birth unknown. He edited Brindley's edition of the classics. He translated into Latin Pope's Essay on Criticism, Temple of Fame, &c. He was executed at Tyburn in February, 1749, for clipping the coin.—J. A., D.
GAHN, Johann Gottlieb, an eminent Swedish chemist and mineralogist, was born on the 17th of August, 1745, at the iron-works of Woxna in Helsvigland. His family appears to have originally come from Scotland. He studied the natural sciences at Upsala, where he discovered the "primitive form" in a six-sided prism of calcareous spar. This discovery, which Bergmann published as his own, is the basis of Hauy's system of crystallography. He acquired a thorough acquaintance with mining and metallurgy, and was thus enabled to effect great improvements in the royal copper-smelting works at Fahlun, for which he was rewarded with a gold medal of merit. After filling various offices connected with the royal college of mines, he died December 8th, 1818. To him we owe in a great measure the use of the blowpipe in chemical analysis. By a careful study of the resources of this instrument, he made it possible to determine the constituents of almost any mineral in a few minutes. The classical work of Berzelius on the use of the blowpipe is mainly founded on the oral instructions of Gahn. He also discovered the nature of bone-earth, and was the first who obtained manganese in the metallic state. Gahn was a modest, retiring man, and allowed many of his researches to be appropriated by his unscrupulous friend Bergmann.—J. W. S.
GAIL, Jean Baptiste, a distinguished Greek scholar, born in Paris in 1755 of humble parents. From an early age he devoted himself to the study of Greek literature; and in 1791 he was appointed professor of that language in the college of France, succeeding Vauvilliers, who, from political causes, had been compelled to resign his office. Gail declared in the noblest manner that he would hold the professorship only as his predecessor's locum tenens, till the latter should be enabled to return. But Vauvilliers, who had retired to St. Petersburg, never availed himself of Gail's generosity, who retained the post till his death in 1828. He was a popular lecturer and an accurate critic; but he held some peculiar notions upon various points of ancient history and geography, which involved him in angry disputations with many literary characters of his day, amongst whom he had the mortification to find some of his own pupils. He was the author of many elementary Greek books, and he did much to popularize the study of the language in France; but, notwithstanding all this, his works were never adopted as authorities by the university. He was a member of the Institute, and also conservateur de la Bibliotheque Royale. His labours were incessant, and his works numerous. They consist chiefly of translations from and editions of Greek classics, amongst which his Homer, in 7 vols., his Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon, and Lucian are the chief. But perhaps his most celebrated work is his "Philologue," a monthly journal of inquiries, historical, geographical, military, &c., in elucidation of the Greek historians, 24 vols., Paris, 1814-1828.—His wife, Edme-Sophie Garre, born at Melun in 1776, the daughter of a surgeon, exhibited a genius for music at a very early age, and even in her twelfth year engaged in composition. Her marriage proved unhappy, and ere long a separation became necessary. She subsequently sang at concerts in France and in Spain with great success, and composed the airs of many favourite songs. In 1813 appeared "Deux Jaloux," her first opera, and in the same year her "Madlle. de Launay à la Bastile," which was not so successful as its predecessor. She visited England in 1816, and on her return composed "La Sérénade," 1818, her last opera, which was well received. She died at Paris, 24th July, 1819, shortly after her return from a visit to Germany.—R. D. B.
GAIL, Jean François, son of the preceding. He was born at Paris in 1795. In 1818 he became professor of history at the military college of St. Cyr, and was subsequently appointed assistant to his father in the college of France, and professor of history at the college of St. Louis. His first work was an essay on Herodotus; and he was afterwards the successful candidate for a prize offered by the Academie des Inscriptions for an essay on the worship of Bacchus. He devoted his talents chiefly to the elucidation of ancient geography; and in 1826 he commenced the publication of an edition of Hudson's great work under the title of Geographi Græci minores, which was interrupted by his premature death in 1845. He was also a successful musical writer, and the author of some popular fables and poetical compositions.—R. D. B.
* GAILHABAUD, Jules, French archæologist, was born at Lille in 1810. Up to 1839 M. Gailhabaud was engaged in commercial pursuits; he has since wholly devoted himself to the study of archæology, especially in the department of architecture. He has travelled much and collected largely. His first and most important publication was—"Monuments Anciens et Modernes: collections formant une Histoire de l'Architecture des différents peuples a toutes les époques," in four thick quarto volumes, Paris, 1840-50. It contains views, plans, sec-
