Como in December, 1799. He was destined for commerce by his father, who, at nine years of age, sent him to Milan to be trained in a commercial house. His literary tastes, however, were early developed by assiduous reading, and it became evident that he was destined to more important labours and more serious difficulties than those of the merchant's desk. In 1830 Giovini was suspected of liberal tendencies by the Austrian government; and compelled to quit Milan, he withdrew to Capo Lago in Switzerland, where he was admitted into the copartnery of a large typographical establishment. Soon after he became the editor of a liberal newspaper, the Anchor; published Colletta's History of Naples; and translated and annotated Daru's History of Venice. A "History of the Popes" speedily followed, giving rise to a controversy of so violent a nature, that for his personal safety he was compelled to bring his enemies before the tribunal of his country. In 1841 he returned with his family to Milan, where he resided for many years, busily occupied with a history of the Jews. In 1848 Giovini was summoned to Turin to undertake the editorship of a political journal, L'Opinione, his connection with which speedily drew upon him the hatred of the Austrian government. In obedience to a mandate received from Vienna he was exiled from Piedmont. He then found his way to England, where, with characteristic benevolence and energy, he promoted every scheme for the relief of his fellow-exiles. A few years after he returned to Turin, where he founded his journal L'Unione, and renewed his warfare with the oppressors of Italy. A pamphlet he published in 1854, entitled "The Austrians in Italy," crowned his fame as a journalist. In point of style it is somewhat diffuse and careless, but it bears the stamp of a powerful and highly cultivated mind.—A. C. M.
GIOVIO, Paolo (Paulus Giovius or Jovious), born at Como, 19th April, 1483; died at Florence, 11th December, 1552. His family was noble, and though his father's death left him at an early age an orphan, his elder brother Benedetto, to whose care he was confided, bestowed on him, as Paolo himself gratefully records in his "Elogio," an education suitable to his rank. He studied in the university of Padua under Pietro Pomponazzi, who at that time filled the chair of philosophy. Subsequently at Pavia, in compliance with his brother's wishes, he took a medical degree and commenced the exercise of his profession in Como and Milan. The date of his removal to Rome, where for a time he pursued his professional avocations, is uncertain; but it cannot have taken place before 1516. There he associated with the polished courtiers and men of letters who flocked around Leo X.; and well fitted by natural gifts and a refined education to wield the pen of the historian, laid before the magnificent pontiff a portion of his "Historiæ sui Temporis," and received in recompense an honourable pension. Adrian VI., who assumed the triple crown in 1522, deprived him of this emolument, but installed him in a canonicate, on condition, it is said, that Paolo should speak favourably of the donor in his "History." If this story be well founded, the pope was justly punished, for though in that work his praises are set forth and his defects glossed over, elsewhere our author mentions him with contempt, and in his "De Piscibus Romanis" calls him a stupid man, altogether incompetent in business matters. By Clement VII. Giovio was treated with increased liberality, and in 1528 elevated to the bishopric of Nocera de' Pagani. The previous year had, however, if we may believe his own account, been most disastrous to Paolo. In the sack of Rome by the imperial troops, a treasure of wrought silver which he had secreted in the church of Sa. Maria sopra Minerva, along with the MS. of the "Historiæ," fell into the hands of two Spanish captains; and though on his representing the destitution in which he was left, Clement VII. ransomed the MS. at the price of an ecclesiastical benefice, sundry portions were never recovered. With the accession of Paul III. Paolo's career of preferment terminated. On leaving Rome he betook himself to Como, where he built a villa, in which he principally resided till his death. Giovio's manners, if we may believe some of his contemporaries, and even some of his own letters, were by no means of that austere stamp which the zealous pope desired to promote amongst his clergy. He has been accused alike of doctrinal heresy and gross licentiousness. Without pronouncing on these extreme charges, we extract from a confidential letter what brands his "Historiæ" as compiled in a spirit of venal partisanship—"You well know that history must be truthful, not in the least tampered with, except as regards a certain small amount of latitude accorded to the author by ancient privilege, in right whereof he may load or lighten the burden of vices on the sinner, or contrariwise with florid and eager eloquence exalt or abase his virtues in proportion to his merits or shortcomings. Otherwise I might whistle, if my friends and patrons were not to feel obliged to me when I make their pound weigh one-third more than that of good-for-noughts and churls. You well know that, thanks to this blessed privilege, I have arrayed some in piled brocade, and on the other hand, some for their deservings in unsightly canvas."—C. G. R.
GIPHANIUS. See Giffen.
GIRALDI, Giovanni Battista, surnamed Cinthio, was born at Ferrara in November, 1504. He studied under Manardi, Calcagnini, and Benzi, and in 1525 commenced to teach medicine and philosophy in the university of his native city. He was afterwards for sixteen years private secretary to Ercole II. of Este. An unhappy quarrel between him and Pigna compelled him to quit the court of Alfonso II., Ercole's successor. He went to Mondovi, where he became professor of belles-lettres, and subsequently removed to Pavia to fill the chair of eloquence. His works are numerous; but he owes his fame to his dramatic compositions, and particularly to the tragedy of "Orbecche." He published at Modena "Ercole," a poem in twenty-six cantos. Most of his works are written in excellent Latin. He was a member of the academy of Gli Affidati. He died at Ferrara on the 30th December, 1575.—A. C. M.
GIRALDI, Lilio Gregorio, an Italian poet and archæologist, born at Ferrara on the 13th June, 1479. At an early age he made himself master of the Greek and Latin languages, and formed an acquaintance at Naples with Pontano and Sannazzaro. He subsequently resided at Mirandola with Galeazzo Pico, whose splendid library afforded him opportunities of study which he eagerly improved. About 1507 he went to Milan, whence he was invited to Modena by the Marquis Rangone, who intrusted him with the education of his son Ercole, afterwards known as Cardinal Rangone. Under the pontificate of Leo X. Giraldi became the guest of his princely pupil in the Vatican, where his lectures were attended by an aristocratic auditory of Roman youths. At the sack of Rome in 1527 Giraldi lost all his books, and in the same year death deprived him of his patron. He then returned to Mirandola, and was warmly welcomed by Duke John Francis Pico, who unhappily perished by assassination in 1535. During the remainder of his life he was chiefly indebted for shelter from utter want to the kindness of his friends, Manardi and Calcagnini. His best work is the "De Diis Gentium," in which he supplied from the resources of a profound erudition, the defects of Boccaccio's Genealogia Deorum. He wrote a treatise on the reform of the Calendar, which was presented by his brother to Gregory XIII., and which thus connects him with the fact which has rendered the name of that pope specially memorable. Latterly Giraldi suffered severely from gout. He died in February, 1552.—A. C. M.
* GIRARD, Alexis François, French engraver, was born at Vincennes in 1789, and studied design under J. B. Regnault. He has executed many engravings important alike for their size and style. Among them are the head of the "Virgin with the Fish," and the "Virgin with the Pearl," after Raffaelle; the series of heads from the "Entry of Henry IV. into Paris," and some other works, after Gérard; several after Ary Scheffer, including the "Three Marys at the Tomb," and the "Soldier's Widow;" and various plates from the works of Delaroche and other artists. The latest print we have noticed by him is the "Two Pigeons," after Léon Benouville, 1859.—J. T—e.
GIRARD, Gabriel, was born at Montferrand, Puy-de-Dôme, about 1677. Resigning an ecclesiastical appointment in favour of his brother, he came to Paris, and successively obtained the appointments of almoner to the duchess of Berry and of secretary-interpreter to the king for the Slavonic and Russian languages. In 1718 he published his "Justesse de la Langue Française," the success of which was so decided that he afterwards gave an improved and remodelled edition of it under the title "Synonymes Français." It was the first work of the kind that had appeared in France, and despite some slight defects, it amply merited the success which it obtained. Voltaire said—"It will exist as long as the language, and even help the language to exist." Girard also wrote "Les vrais principes de la langue Française." He was admitted to the academy in 1744, and died in 1748.—W. J. P.
GIRARD, Philippe de, a distinguished mechanic and prac-
