botanic garden to its new site on the banks of the Kelvin in 1841-42, and laid out the grounds in a very tasteful manner. He continued to superintend the garden until 1852, when he resigned. On the occasion of his retirement he was presented with a handsome testimonial. He was the means of training many young men who were afterwards distinguished as botanical collectors in foreign countries. He contributed articles to Loudon's Gardener's Magazine and the Transactions of the London Horticultural Society, of which he was a fellow. His name has been associated with several species of plants described by Hooker. During the last years of his life he suffered much from domestic bereavement and severe illness, which he bore with christian fortitude.—J. H. B.
MURRAY, William. See Mansfield.
MUSÆUS, a mythical personage, supposed to be contemporary with Orpheus. The ancient writers generally assigned a very remote date to Orpheus and Musæus, and to the oracles and verses which were current under their names. They were indeed believed to have been anterior to Homer and Hesiod, and such was also the common opinion of modern scholars down to a recent period. It has now been shown, however, that the earliest of these writings belonged to an era subsequent to that of Hesiod, and the date of Musæus, if we suppose such a person to have really existed, should probably be placed from 700-600 b.c. To Musæus were commonly ascribed among the Greeks various healing charms, mysterious rites, ceremonies of purification, oracles, and hymns (compare Orpheus). A Greek hexameter poem on the story of Hero and Leander is current under the name of Musæus, but it is of late date, probably about 500. It has considerable merit as a composition, and has been imitated by Christopher Marlowe in his Sestiads.—G.
MUSÆUS, Johann Karl August, a German novelist, was born at Jena in 1735. Originally intended for the church, he preferred the study of classical antiquity and polite literature, and in 1770 was appointed to a professorship in the gymnasium at Weimar, where he died 28th October, 1787. Most of his writings are of a satirical turn. His "Grandison the Second" (afterwards entitled the "German Grandison") was directed against Richardson; his "Physiognomische Reisen" against Lavater. Even his "Mährchen," his most popular productions are not without some slight tincture of satire. As to his character, he was of blameless integrity, and enjoyed the unmingled respect of his countrymen.—K. E.
MUSCHENBROEK. See Musschenbroek.
MUSCHER, Michiel van, a celebrated Dutch painter, was born at Rotterdam in 1645. He was a scholar of A. van Tempel, but studied also under A. van Ostade and Metzu. He painted chiefly small portraits and conversation pieces, in both exhibiting great beauty of colour and chiaroscuro, and a pleasing quiet manner, without much originality. His pictures, which are not numerous, have of late years risen much in the estimation of English collectors; in his own country they have long been highly valued. There are excellent examples of his pencil in the Hague gallery, and in the public and private collections of Amsterdam. Muscher died at Amsterdam in 1705.—J. T—e.
MUSCULUS, Wolfgang, properly Moesel or Müsslin, an eminent German reformer, was born 8th September, 1497, in Lorraine, of poor parents, and entered a benedictine monastery, near Lixheim in Alsace, in his fifteenth year. He was fond of books, and expected to find the monks as fond of them as himself, and when he was disappointed in this hope he compensated himself by the diligent study of the Latin authors, and by applying himself to theology. In 1518 the writings of Luther reached the monastery, and he soon became a decided Lutheran. In 1527 he threw off the cowl and repaired to Strasburg, where he attended the lectures of Capito and Bucer, and acquired a good knowledge of Hebrew. His poverty at this period of his life was extreme, and compelled him at one time to entertain the design of engaging in some employment as a common mechanic, when he was happily relieved of his distress by being appointed to a village pastorate in the neighbourhood of Strasburg. In 1531 he was called to exercise his ministry in the important city of Augsburg in the church of the Holy Cross; and though modestly reluctant to undertake such a charge, he found himself fully qualified for the post. In a short time he became the leading protestant preacher of the city. He displayed equal ability and moderation in maintaining the cause of reform in opposition both to the papists and the anabaptists. In 1537 the bishop and his party withdrew from the city, and on the 13th July the gospel was preached for the first time in the cathedral by Musculus. He continued to labour with great devotion in Augsburg for seventeen years. He took much pains in preparing himself for the pulpit, and several of his published commentaries consisted of the substance of his sermons. He was frequently sent by the evangelical magistracy of Augsburg upon public missions connected with ecclesiastical affairs—to Wittemberg in 1536; to Wormsin 1540; and to Regensburg in 1541; and at the request of the inhabitants of Donauwerth he was sent to introduce the Reformation in that town, where he remained for several months. But in 1547-48 a great change took place in his position. In September, 1547, Charles V. opened the diet of the empire at Augsburg in great pomp, after his successes against the evangelical princes in the Schmalkaldian war. The exiled bishop and priests returned to the city. Musculus and his flock were instantly removed from the cathedral, in which the Romish worship was restored. As long as the magistrates remained firm in their opposition to Charles' Interim Musculus stood boldly at their side; but when they saw themselves compelled at last to succumb to threats and force he was obliged to give way, and he quitted the city on 26th June, 1548, never to return. He betook himself to Switzerland, and after some stay at Zurich, where he was hospitably received by Bullinger and Pellican, he settled at Bern, where he was appointed to a theological chair. He had many invitations in after years to exchange Bern for other universities; but he preferred to spend the remainder of his life at the side of Haller the Bernese reformer, with whom he continued to labour hand in hand with entire harmony for many years. His numerous publications were highly distinguished for learning and sound judgment. His commentaries were much valued both in the Reformed and Lutheran churches. In his earlier life he was attached to the dogmatic views of the Strasburg divines, and he bore a part in drawing up the Wittemberg articles of concord between them and the Saxon divines in 1536. But subsequently he became more and more conformed to the Helvetic type of doctrine, and it is mainly upon that type his "Loci Communes," first published in 1560, are constructed. He brought up six sons to the ministry. The last of a long race of preachers sprung from him died at Bern in 1821. He survived till 30th August, 1563.—P. L.
MUSHET, David, was born at Dalkeith in 1772. From the age of nineteen, when he became one of the staff belonging to the Clyde iron works, he devoted himself to the study of metallurgy; and in spite of the difficulties and opposition consequent upon the ignorance which surrounded him, he attained to be in a few years the first authority, both at home and abroad, upon all points connected with the science and practice of iron and steel making. He found the knowledge of iron, and of the ores from which the metal is derived, wrapped in the darkness of barbarism; he evolved and brought to light the true principles of both by a series of experiments, in which the most patient investigation and untiring bodily labour were combined. The system of assaying ores of iron now universally practised was the first-fruit of his early labours; and it may be said without exaggeration, that the rise and progress of the iron trade in this island, till then chiefly in the hands of foreigners, is mainly owing to the application of the simple and intelligible principles laid down in Mr. Mushet's writings. Mr. Mushet's early career as a metallurgist is before the world in a volume of "Papers on Iron and Steel" reprinted in 1840 from the Philosophical Magazine, in which they first appeared. These papers contain the germ of inventions and discoveries, some perfected by himself, others adopted and worked out by various individuals; and there is no doubt that at least one hundred of the patented improvements in the manufacture of iron and steel have been derived from Mr. Mushet's published writings. These have all benefited the world at large, but his native country owes to him a peculiar debt of gratitude for almost unbounded commercial resources in the discovery of the black band ironstone. This discovery he made while engaged in erecting the Calder ironworks in 1801. After he had used it in these works, and proved it to be an ironstone, not a worthless mineral termed "wild coal," as had been imagined, immense tracts of it were eagerly sought after by the Scottish ironmasters, and large fortunes were made, not only by the ironmasters, but by those proprietors in whose lands the mineral was found. From this invaluable discovery the discoverer, as it too often happens in such cases, reaped no pecuniary reward. The
