lican ideas, he became on every occasion the determined opponent of government. In 1830 he took part in the struggle which drove Charles X. from the throne. Disappointed in his hopes of seeing republicanism established, he repeatedly conspired against Louis Philippe. After the revolution of 1848 he played a more conspicuous part in public affairs, till the coup d'êtat of 1852 consigned him to a prison. The funeral of his wife in 1853 was made the occasion of a grand demonstration by the republican party.—J. W. S.
RASTALL or RASTELL, John, an English printer of the time of Henry VIII., was born in the latter part of the fifteenth century, and became a citizen of London. He married Elizabeth, sister of Sir Thomas More, whose dialogue against Luther he printed in 1529. His name is coupled by Fox with that of More and Rochester, in a trio of "obstinate enemies" to Frith the protestant in a controversy on purgatory. Frith, replying to one of Rastall's dialogues, drew forth the printer's "Apology against John Frith," the answer to which, however, was so convincing as to convert Rastall, it is said, to the protestant faith. Rastall not only printed but wrote and compiled several books, chiefly on legal subjects, to which no doubt his attention was turned by his connection with the chancellor. His "Pastym of People," 1529, a chronicle of the kings of England, was reprinted in 1811. He died in 1536. His shop was at the sign of the Mermaid, Paul's Gate, Cheapside.—William Rastall, his son, was born about 1508, and educated for the law, but carried on the business of a printer till 1534. Notwithstanding his father's alleged conversion, William was a zealous papist, and retired to Louvain, on the establishment of the Church of England by Edward VI. Returning in the reign of Mary, he was made a sergeant-at-law, a commissioner against the heretics, and a justice of the common pleas, but after Elizabeth's accession retired again to Louvain where he died in 1565.—R. H.
* RATAZZI, Urbano, an Italian statesman, was born in 1808, and educated for the legal profession at the college of Alexandria, his native city. He attained a high position at the bar of Turin, and afterwards in the court of appeal at Casale; but does not appear to have taken any active part in politics previous to the revolution of 1848. He was elected member for Alexandria in the parliament called under the constitution of Charles Albert; and after the defeat of Custoza he took the portfolio of public instruction in the Casati ministry, which lasted only ten days. In October following, he was elected vice-president of the chamber of deputies, and on the 15th December he entered the ministry of Gioberti, of which he soon became the virtual chief, holding the portfolio of the interior, and afterwards that of grace and justice. A difference arising as to the proposal of an expedition to Rome, Gioberti retired from the ministry, and Ratazzi was at the head of affairs, when, following the popular impulse, the war against Austria was declared, which terminated in the disastrous defeat of Novara. After the fall of Charles Albert, Ratazzi ranged himself with the "left centre"—the party who seek progress by moderate and constitutional means. In 1852 he became president of the chamber, and in 1854 he entered the ministry of his old opponent Cavour, as minister of justice. When Cavour resigned office, after the peace of Villafranca, Ratazzi succeeded him as minister of the interior (19th July, 1859), but his course was supposed to be mainly dictated by the late minister. When the urgency of public affairs recalled Cavour to the ministry, Ratazzi retired from office, but was elected president of the chamber of deputies. After the death of the count he waived his pretensions to the vacant post in favour of Ricasoli, and in a speech delivered in December, 1861, lent his aid to the policy of the ministry. In March, 1862, he was called upon to form a ministry, the completion of which he announced on the 31st of that month. His strength is considered to be not so much in the support of the nation or the parliament, as in the personal favour of the sovereign; and his intimate connection with the Tuileries has exposed him to imputations of even a less honourable nature. A chief incident of his present administration has been the forcible suppression of an attempted expedition for the liberation of Venice, although he is circumstantially accused of having, in his ministerial capacity, encouraged it in the first instance. Of the more recent incidents connected with Garibaldi's expedition for the recovery of Rome (August, 1862) it is yet too early to speak. How far Ratazzi was a party to the movement in its earlier stages has yet to be proved; but upon him rests, it is said, the responsibility of the attack upon the unresisting forces of the liberator; the subsequent execution, in cold blood, of a number of his followers, as well as of unarmed citizens in Milan; and an obstinate resistance to the generous desire of the king to grant a general amnesty.—F. M. W.
RATCLIFFE. See Radcliffe.
RATHERIUS or RATHIERUS, a learned prelate of the tenth century, born at Libya, became a monk in the abbey of Lobbes, or Laubes, in Flanders; in 928 accompanied Hilduin, the dispossessed bishop of Liege, to Italy; and in 931 obtained from the pope the see of Verona. He died at Namur about 973. His works were printed by the brothers Ballerini in 1767.
RATRAMNUS or BERTRAM was a French monk of Old Corbey. He flourished as early as 840, and survived at least to 870. He wrote a work, "De partu Virginis," to prove that Jesus was born by ordinary generation; and he was answered by Radbert, who maintained the perpetual virginity of Mary. He wrote also on predestination, opposing Hincmar, archbishop of Rheims; and at the request of Charles the Bald, "De Corpore et Sanguine Domini," in antagonism to Radbert, who, it is affirmed by many, first brought the doctrine of transubstantiation into the Romish church. Of this last treatise an edition in English was published at Dublin in 1753.—J. E.
* RAU, Heribert, a prolific German novelist, was bred for the mercantile profession, which he however forsook for the study of theology. He then joined the so-called German catholics, by whom he was appointed preacher at Stuttgart, and afterwards at Mannheim (1849), till he was removed from office by government. The subjects of his novels are mostly taken from the history of literature, for instance, Alexander von Humboldt, 7 vols., Jean Paul, 4 vols., &c.—K. E.
RAUCH, Christian, one of the most eminent of the recent sculptors of Germany, was born January 2, 1777, at Arolsen in Waldeck. Of humble parentage, he was noticed by the sculptor Ruhl of Cassel, who gave him some instruction in modelling; but when he approached manhood he was sent to Berlin to fill the situation of footman, which had been obtained for him in the establishment of Queen Louise. Still in his spare hours he practised the lessons he had received; and one day being seen by the queen engaged in modelling her portrait, she became so much interested in him that she sent him first to Dresden to study, and then, in 1804, enabled him to visit France and Italy. He stayed at Rome; was introduced by Humboldt, then Prussian minister in that city, to Canova and Thorwaldsen, who admitted him to their studios and guided his studies; and executed several classical statues and rilievi, and numerous portrait-busts, which were greatly admired and gave assurance of his future eminence. He was recalled to Berlin in 1811 to design a monument to Queen Louise, which, two years later, he returned to Italy to execute. To this monument, a recumbent statue of the queen, at whose feet is an eagle exquisitely modelled, he devoted several years of earnest study and labour; his admiration of the queen, his early benefactress and constant friend, amounting almost to reverence. It is generally felt to be the most beautiful and impressive of all his works. Rauch continued to reside in Rome till 1822, when he returned to Berlin. He had now taken his place among the most distinguished sculptors of Europe, and he found no lack of employment for his chisel. He executed many classical and poetical statues, groups, and rilievi, and some from domestic life, of great beauty; but his distinctive power was in monumental and portrait sculpture. His busts, both in bronze and marble, and sometimes of colossal size, are exceedingly numerous, embracing a large number of the most eminent Germans of his own, and many of a former, age. His monumental statues in bronze and marble include the celebrated colossal equestrian statues of Marshal Blucher; monuments of Generals Bulow and Scharnhorst; statues of Luther, Albert Dürer, Schiller, and other German worthies; and a series of the old kings of Poland for Posen cathedral, &c. The six "Victories," in the Walhalla at Ratisbon, are also by him. But his crowning work was the monument of Frederick the Great, erected in Berlin—one of the grandest, most elaborate, and, taken altogether, most successful of the recent public monuments of Europe. It was commenced in 1830, the colossal equestrian statue of Frederick was cast in 1846, and the whole was completed in 1851. In designing the pedestal, and in the arrangements generally, Rauch was assisted by the architect Schinkel. Rauch's last years were spent in great honour in
