THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
Agriculture
statute prohibited the sowing of a field "' with minfilcd {k-iliii/iiii, Lev. xi..tO),mi (ipenit ion which in one liiirvest iiiiiihl cxhansl Ihc soil of nil its fcililc cliiiii
seed"
conslitiuiits. Alongside of Iliis may lie placed the various hunianilariaii laws, reserving the corners of the harvest field forthe poor and thestninger(Lev. xix. !)), coneerning the forgotten sheaf (Deut. xxiv. The harvesting 19), and other similar regulations. seasons were Nisan (Ajiril) for barley. Siwan (early June) for wheal, Tishri (.September) for fruits. Concerning these hitter, see the articles Flu, Olivk, Svciciil
AMOKK. and Vine.
The various processes in Agriculttire may now bo considered. To eultivat(! land for the lirst lime, it was ueccssiiry to clear it cither of forClearing est timber (Josh. xvii. 1^) or of stones and Pre- (Isa v. 2). When thus cleared it was paring the ready for plowing, variously called in Hebrew ;(('/•, hiiniHh (to cut into), juihih (lo cleave asunder), jintnh (to open),
Land.
If the soil was clayey, the resulting clods were broken up with mattock or hoe; for in llic sub.setiuent harrowing (midml. .Job, xxxix. 10) only a light harrow, probably a thorn-bush, was employed. Manure was used: it consisted of wood-ashes (Jlishnah Sheb. ii. 4), leaves (('A. 'Ab, Zarali, iii. 8), the blood of slaughlcred animals (ih. Yoma, v. (i Yer. Sheb. iii. 34), oil-scum, or of the usual house and farmyard refuse, inio which straw or other litter had been trodden by cattle (Isa. xxv. 10): but whether it was applied liefore or after plowing does not appear. etc.
Manuring
is
referred to in
I's.
Ixxxiii. 10: Jer. viii.
was applied to trees, about their roots, to preserve Ihem and to stinuUate them into fruitfuluess (B. K. iii. 3). The passages Isa. v. 24 and 2,
and
ix. 21.
It
xlvii. 14 refer rather to clearing the field of
stubble by
standing
than to the direct useof ashesasa fertilizer. The institution of the seventh-year fallow was also a valuable factor in maintaining the fertility of the soil. The implements used in the siibsefiuent processes were the plow, the hoe or mattock, and a harrow of some kind. The hoe ('^rfcc) was used to break up fields The plow, too steep or too cramped for plowing. which was of wood, usually o.ak. was of the simplest and lightest construction, being carried to and from the field on a man's shoulder. Its essential feature was the upright J-shape<l limber, shod sometimes with iron at the point (I Sam. xiii. 20), and with a short crosshead at the top to serve as a guiding handle. This upright passed through a hole in a fire
268
As many as wel ve teams were inisame field at one time each, no doubt, in its own "land" or section (I Kings. xix.UI). In Isji. xxviii. '2~> three words are used for the act of sowing: namely, hejiz (to scatter) for sowing "fitches": zarak (lo scatter) for sowing cumin; and sum (lo i)lace) for wheat ami barley the first two exman's
left
ployed
hand.
I
in the
pressions evidently referring to broadcast sowing, the After sowing, latter lo drilling in the furrows. the seed was plowed or brushed in with Ibe light harrow to protect il from birds, mice, ants, and from Sometimes the seed was the scorching siuishine. sown broadcast before plowing, and covered in at one operation. Egypt depended for irrigation upon Nile water lifted into elevated reservoirs, whence it was distributed lo the fields through channels closed or opened by a hillock <if earth, pushed into place by the foot Palestine, on Ibe contrary, hail an (Deut. xi. 10). abundance of brooks and rock sjirings, (" fountains"); and was blessed with copious rains. From all these sources water was collected in cisterns, lo guard against diy seasons when rain would be scarce and brooks and springs be dried up. An idea of the machinery used in Bible limes may be obtained from that employed to raise the water from wells or springs in Palestine lo-day. It consists of a horizontal wlicel of roughly framed timbers, lurne(l by a bullock (ir oilier animal lied lo a sweep bcncalh it. This wheel comiects directly with a vertical one of equally rude construction, carrying earthen jars, or other receptacles, fastened to its periphery. As these jars rise to the top they turn over and empty their contents into theconductingchannels. (See illustration, p. 267.)
In addition, systems of channels and gutters were arranged to catch the heavy rains on inclined ground, and lo distribute the water .slowly and evenly over the soil. Such an artificially watered field was called bet ha-Kluiiihiii (place of jiouring
while a
field
see Job, v. 10, Ileb.), txt lM-ha'al
watered by rain was called
(place of rain; see B. B. iii. 1). Crops ripe for harvesting were sometimes pulled up by the roots (Mishnah Peah, iv. 10), particularly pulse. Grain was sometimes dug up with the hoe, thus preparing the fielil forthe next sowing (/i. Peah, iv. 4; B. M. ix. 1), but was more frequently cut with a lieriiuxh (Deut. xvi. 9, xxiii. 26), or a marjgal, or Iron sickles sickle (Joel, iii. ]I,b., iv. 13; Jer. 1. 16). of the earliest times have been found in the Tell el-
horizontal beam, which consisted of two stout poles lashed together, to the further end of which the yoke was secured. Consisting of so many pieces isee illustration p. 26G), and these connected not strictly in the direct line of draft, the work can not have been very perfectl.v done: no greater dejith of soil than four or five inches being penetrated and torn up. For stony or rooty ground it was of course altosiich had to be " picked " with a gether useless
heavy hoe (Isa. vii. 2.')). This was shaped something like the American corn-knife, but, the blade being set at a very acute angle to the handle, it was possible to reenforcc it for its rough work by a thong or rope, as shown in the illustration (p. 264).
While the farmer's right hand grasped the handle of the plow, the team {zoned) of oxen (Amos, vi. 12), of cows (Job, i. 14, llcb.), or, sometimes, of asses (Deut. xxii. 10, Isa. xxx. 24), was urged onward with a goad (nuilmnd. dorhun) a staff some eight
—
feet long, provided with a sharp point for that purpose at one end, and at the other with a flat blade for cleaning the plow-point (Mishnah Oholot, xvii. held in the plow2) or for breaking chance clods
—
Modem Sickle. (From
Beniit}f;er, **Ht.brli9che Arcfaiologlr.*')
Ilesy excavations, as also
some
edge composed of flakes of
flint
with a cutting (Mishnah Sheb. v.
set
G; .see illus. ). Barley was harvested at Nisan, Passover-time (Tosef. Suk. 3, 18); wheat and spelt a few weeks later (Tan., Wayhi, 1.5; see also Ex. ix. 32); and grain-harvesting was finished by Pentecost (.Siwan; Tosef., Suk. ih.). The single handfuls (zeiatim, Kuth, ii. 16) were tied into sheaves (i(^"mwii'»t or iilnmmot. Gen. xxxvii. 7; Ps. cxxvi. 6) by their own straw, were piled into ,
