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THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA
807
Akiba souglit to apply the system of isolation followed by the Pharisees (D'CTIB = those who '•scpurutu " themselves) to (loctrinc as they Akiba's did to practise, to the intellectual life Henneneu- as they did to that of <laily intercourse, tic System, and he succeeded in furuishinj: a firm foundation for his system. As the fundamental principle of his system, Akiba euunclalcs his conviction that the mode of expression used by the Torah is (|uile diirerent from that of every other
In the lunsjruajfe of the Torah nothing is mere form; everythinj; is essence. It has nothing superfluous; not a word, not a syllable, not even a letter. Every peculiarity of diction, every particle, everj' sign, is to be considered as of higher importance, as having a wider relation and as being of deeper meaning than it seems to have. Like Philo (see Siegfried. "Philo."p. Itisi, who .saw in the Hebrew construction of the infinitive with the finite form of the ssime verb which is readily recognizable in the Septua-
book.
— gini — and in cerlain particles(adverbs. prepo.sitions,
some deep reference to philosophical and ethical doctrines. Akiba perceive<l in them indications of
etc. .
)
many imjiorlant ceremonial laws, legal statutes, and ethical tiaehltigs (lompare ilolfniann, "ZurKinleit ung,"|ip. .")-rj,and(!rill/.."Gesch."iv. 4i7). He thus gave the.Iewish mind not <mly a new field forits own employment, but, convinced both of the unchangeableuess of Holy Scripture and of the necessity for development in .Judaism, he succeeded in reconciling Ihesetwoappanntly hopeless opposites by means of his remarkabli- method. The following two illustrations will serve to make this clear: (1) The high conception of wcjman's dignily, which Akiba shared in conunon with m<psl oilier Pharisees, induced him to abolish the Orienlal cusium that banished women at Cerlain periods from all social intercourse. He succeeded, moreover, in fully justifying his interpretation of those Scri|)tural passjiges upon which this ostnicism hail lnen foun<leil by theolderexpoimders of iheTondi (Sifni, >Ie/.ora'.end, and Sbab. (i4//|. (2) The l$iblical liirislation in K.. i. 7 could not be reconciled by .kiba with his view of .Jewish ethics: forhima ".lewish slave " isa contradiction interms; for every .lew is to be regarded as a iirince (15. M. 1134). Akiba therefore teaches, in opposition to the old Halakali, that the s;de fif a daughter underage by her father conveys to her purchaser no legal title to n)arriage with her, bui, on the contnirv, carries with it the tlnli/ tit keep the femah' shnc until she is of agi', and lln-n to marry her (Mik.. ^lishpatim. ;!). How .kilia endeavors to subslantiale this from the
Hebrew
te.t
How
shown bv Geiger
is
(" L'rschrift," p. for the letter of the
he cared Law it to Jie antagonistic to the of .luilaism, is shown by his attitude toward the Samaritans. He considered friendly inlercourse with these semi-.Iews as desirable on political as will as on riligious grouiuls; ami he permit tiil in opposition to tnidilion not only eating their breail (Sheb. viii. 1(1) liut also evintual intermarriage (Kid. 7.V<). This is q te remarkable, seeing that in matrimonial legislation he went so far as to declare every forbiddin union as absolutely void (Yeb. i(2'i) and the olTspring as illigilimate Kid. tiS<;). For similar reasons .Vkiba comes mar abolishing the IJiblical orilinance of Kilaim nearly every <hapter in the treatise ot that name contains a miliiration by .^kiba. Love for the Holy Ijmd, whiih he as a genuine na 1M7).
little
whenever he conceives
spirit
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freiiueiitly and warmly expre.s.sed (sic Ab. xxvi). was so powerful with him that he would have exempted agriculture from much of the
lionalist
H
N.
rigor of the Law. These examples will sullice to Justify the opiuion that Akiba was the man to whom
Akiba ben Joseph
Judaism owes preeminently
its activity and its capacity for development. Goethe's sjiying, that "in self-restraint is the master shown," is contradicted by Akiba, who, though diametrically oppo-sed to all philosophReligious ical speculation, is nevertheless the Philosoonly tanna to whom we can attribute phy. something likea religious philosophy. tannaitic tradition Hag. 144 Tosef. Hag. ii. 3) mentions that of the four who entered l)ani(li.se, Akiba was the only one that returned unscathed. This serves at least to show how strong in later ages was the recollection of Akiba's philosophical speculation (see Elisu. b. Abuva). Akiba's utterances (Abot, iii. 14, 15) may serve to present the essence of his religious conviction. They run "How favored is man, for he was created after an image: as Scripture says, 'for in an image, Klohim made man " (Gen. ix. 6). "Everything is foreseen
A
(
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but freedom [of will] is given to every man. " " The world is governed by mercy but the divine decision is made by the preponderance of the good or bad in one's actions." Akilia's anthropology is based upon the principle that man was created .
D7Y3. that
is,
not in the image of
.
.
God
— which would
—
be D'nPN D?V3 but after an image, after a primordial type; or, philo.sophically speaking, after an Idea wliat Philo calls in agreement with Palestinian theology, "the first heavenly man" (see Ai)..M Iy.l>.lON j. Strict monotheist that Akiba was, he protested against any compari.son of God with the angels, and declared the traditional interpretation of 1JD0 TnX3 (tien. iii. 'J'Jias meaning " like one of us" to be arniiit blasphemy (.Mek., Heshallah, 6). It is ([uite instructive to read how a contemporary of Akiba, Justin Martyr, calls the old interpretation thus objected to by Akiba a "Jewish heretical one" (" Dial, cum Tryph." Ixii.). In his earnest endeavors to insist as strongly as pos,sible tipon the incompanible nature of God, Akiba indeed lowers the angels somewhat to the realms of mortals, and, alluding to Ps. Ix.wiii. •J."), maintains that mamia is the actual food of the angels Voma, 7.V/). This view of Akiba's, in spite of the energetic protests of his colleague Ishmael, became the one generally accepted by his contemporaries, as Justin Martyr, I.e.. Ivii.,
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indicates.
Airainst the .Tudico-Gnoslic doctrine ("R<-cognit." 3l»; Sifre, Num. 103; Sifra, AVayikra. 'i). which teaches that angels who arc spiritual beings and also that the departeil juous, who are bereft of their llcsh, can see God, the words of Akiba, in Sifni. I.e.. must be noticed. He insists that not even the angels can see God's glorv for he inter|irets Freedom the expression in kx. xxxiii. '20, "no of 'Will. man can si'c me and live " ('ni>. as if it read "no man or any living immortal can see me." Next to tlu' tnuiscendeiilal nature of God, .kiba insists emphatically, as has bien mentioned, on the freedom of the will, to which heallows no limilations. This insistence is in opposition to the Ciiristian doctrine of the sinfulness ami depmvity of man. and apparently controverts his view of divine predestination. He derides those who lind excuse for their sins in this supposed innate depravity Hul .Vkiba 's opposition to this genelic(]id. !^1</). ally .lewish doctrine is probably diricted mainly against its Christian correlative, the doclriui' of the grace of God coniingent upon faith in Christ, and ba;itism. Heferring to this, .kiba sjiys. "Happy aniii.
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O Israelites, that ye Jiurify yourselves through your heavenly Father, as it is said (Jer. xvii. 13, J/eb. Israel's hope is God " (Mishuah Youm, cud). ye.
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),
