known which we know as orientation. But further, all the higher kinds of cognition also attach themselves as comparisons—identification, distinction, inference—to characteristics which lead to reflexion, to expectation, and to certainty. The judgment is grounded upon signs.
7. Natural signs appear either in that course of nature which is independent of human will, or they are “made,” “given,” “formed” by men, and these latter again are either (as such, i.e., as signs) made involuntarily or with the purpose of “denoting” something, they are to denote something. A made sign is either intended to serve the person himself who made it for his future recollection, or it is to serve others for their present or future recollection.
8. All human expressive movements are, or become, involuntary signs of the psychical states expressed in them. These signs vary between the limits of that which takes place contrary to our will or wish (e.g., blushing, growing pale) and involuntarily (the so-called reflex movements, e.g., starting, wrinkling the brow)—hence the signs which “betray” us—and these belong entirely to the independent course of nature; and at the other extreme that which is involuntary as sign, but nevertheless is done with the assent of the subject, e.g., the cry of joy and springing to embrace when lovers meet.
9. To make expressive signs is, or becomes, necessary for any one who desires to impart his sensations and feelings, especially the wish that another being should do or omit to do something. Signs which are made for this purpose may even be understood by many animals; to them belong more especially tones and gestures, but also action which affects the general sense-organ of the skin either pleasantly or unpleasantly.
10. The use of signs of different kinds, which is so infinitely important for the whole cultured life of humanity, depends principally upon made signs. Sensation in common, thought and belief in common, make themselves known in the use of signs, even when these have no other purpose than to afford expression to just this feeling and fellow-feeling, to be “symbols” of the community.
11. But most signs of this kind serve also for mutual understanding, and are easily understood in proportion as they are natural signs of the will which “utters itself,” or “reveals itself” through them. Here then action upon the sight (gesture-language) is capable of much greater variety than action upon general sensation, while action upon the hearing again (sound-language) surpasses this in
