276 NEW BOOKS. words, the conclusion is reached that reading is in terms of the general form of the word rather than of the separate letters. The rough form of the letters, and the letters clearly seen, work together and mutually correct each other in the reading process. Where the form is ambiguous, the letters determine the way in which the word is read ; and the form determines, where the letters clearly seen are ambiguous. In no case, however, is there an optical spelling-through of the word. Again, there can be no letter-by-letter translation from the optical element to the auditory element, for the sounds do not run parallel to the letters. On the whole, the results justify the assertion that reading is always by words, and never primarily by letters. The last two chapters of the book are devoted to a discussion of the reaction times that enter into the reading process. First under this head there is a long critique of the method of deducing the psychical times employed by Cattell. The examination results in a rejection of the divisions of the earlier workers, as based upon insufficient data. New principles are suggested in their place, but even these are not considered as entirely trustworthy. In their own results, the authors are content to give the uncorrected total times, and make no attempt to allot their due proportions to the different constituent processes. The results of the experiments in this department, too, go to support the main contention. It is found that a word of four letters can be recognised more quickly than a single letter, and that the time gradually rises for eight, twelve and sixteen letter words. There is little criticism to be passed upon the work. It might be objected that the authors have devoted too much attention to the physio- logical and external factors in reading, to the exclusion of the more subjective or apperceptive factors : but that does not affect the value of their results. The treatise, as a whole, is a model of patient work. The writers have erred, where they have erred at all, on the side of too great care. In some cases, they have laid themselves open to the charge of thoroughness for the mere sake of thoroughness, without reference to the end to be accomplished. There is also a suggestion at times of verbosity in the explanations : but we can forgive them all this for the pleasure of feeling that, in this day of concentration, some have been able to write without considering limitations of space. Although the conclusions of the book hardly do more than confirm the results of earlier investigations, it is an advantage to have the material brought together in a convenient form. V. B. PILLSBURY. Die Ideenassociation des Kindes. Von Dr. TH. ZIEHBN. Berlin: Beuther & Beichard, 1898 ; London : Williams & Norgate. Pp. 66. Price Is. 6d. net. Ceber die ausserhalb der Sohule liegenden Ursaohen der Nervositat der Kinder. Von Prof. Dr. A. CRAMER. Berlin : Reuther & Reichard, 1899 ; London : Williams & Norgate. Pp. 28. Price 9d. net. The process of association as regards adults has been studied experi- mentally by various psychologists. Prof. Ziehen, himself a prominent associationist, is now engaged in association experiments with children. In the present contribution he selects for discussion the nature of the trend of ideas when a given idea is presented. In essays yet to follow he intends to investigate the child's store of ideas, the velocity of its ideational movements, and the course and rapidity of association under special conditions. The children experimented with were exclusively boys, about forty-five in number, between the ages of eight and fourteen,
