43^ Outlines of Eiiropean History England and France estab- lish strong national gov- ernments extended over all the realm. But the task of consolidating France was reserved for the son of Charles VII, the shrewd and treacherous Louis XI (i 461-1483). The most powerful and dangerous of Louis XI's vassals were the dukes of Burgundy, and they gave him a great deal of trouble. Of Burgundy something will be said in later chapters. Louis XI had himself made heir to a number of provinces in central and southern France, — Anjou, Maine, Provence, etc., — which by the death of their possessors came under the king's immediate control ( 1 48 1 ). He humiliated in various ways the vassals who in his early days had combined against him. The Duke of Alen^on he im- prisoned ; the rebellious Duke of Nemours he caused to be executed in the most cruel manner. Louis's aims were worthy, but his means were generally despicable. It some- times seemed as if he gloried in being the most rascally among rascals, the most treacherous among the traitors. Both England and France emerged from the troubles and desolations of the Hundred Years' War stronger than ever before. In both countries the kings had overcome the menace of feudalism by destroying the power of the great families. The royal government was becoming constantly more powerful. Commerce and industry increased the people's wealth and sup- plied the monarchs with the revenue necessary to maintain gov- ernment officials and a sufficient army to keep order throughout their realms. They were no longer forced to rely upon the uncertain fidelity of their vassals. In short, England and France were both becoming modern states, Fig. 167. Louis XI of France
