readily explained without a globe or diagrams, but may be thus indicated: Suppose a circle to run completely round the earth, through Greenwich and both the poles; now, if this circle be supposed free to turn upon the polar axis, or on the poles as pivots, and the half which crosses Greenwich be carried (the nearest way round) till it crosses some other station, then the arc through which it is carried is called the longitude of the station, and the longitude is easterly or westerly according as this half-circle has to be shifted toward the east or west. A complete half-turn is 180°, and, by taking such a half-turn either eastwardly or westwardly, the whole surface of the earth is included. Points which are 180° east of Greenwich are thus also 180° west of Greenwich.
So much is premised in the way of explanation to make the present paper complete; but ten minutes' inspection of an ordinary terrestrial globe will show the true meaning of latitude and longitude more clearly (to those who happen to have forgotten what they learned at school on these points) than any verbal description.
Now, it is sufficiently easy for a sea-captain in fine weather to determine his latitude. For places in different latitudes have different celestial scenery, if one may so describe the aspect of the stellar heavens by night and the course traversed by the sun by day. The height of the pole-star above the horizon, for instance, at once indicates the latitude very closely, and would indicate the latitude exactly if the pole-star were exactly at the pole instead of being merely close to it. But the height of any known star when due south also gives the latitude. For, at every place in a given latitude, a star rises to a given greatest height when due south; if we travel farther south, the star will be higher when due south; if we travel farther north, it will be lower; and thus its observed height shows just how far north of the equator any northerly station is, while, if the traveller is in the Southern Hemisphere, corresponding observations show how far to the south of the equator he is.
But commonly the seaman trusts to observation of the sun to give him his latitude. The observation is made at noon, when the sun is highest above the horizon. The actual height is determined by means of the instrument called the sextant. This instrument need not be here described; but thus much may be mentioned to explain that process of taking the sun's meridian altitude which, no doubt, every one has witnessed who has taken a long sea-journey. The sextant is so devised that the observer can see two objects at once, one directly and the other after reflection of its light; and the amount by which he has to move a certain bar carrying the reflecting arrangement, in order to bring the two objects into view in the same direction, shows him the real divergence of lines drawn from his eye to the two objects. To take the sun's altitude, then, with this instrument, the observer takes the sun as one object and the horizon directly below the sun as the
