time, other members of the academy made their discoveries known to the people. Thus Gerhard lectured on mineralogy, metallurgy and the theory of mining, and Achard on chemistry, experimental physics and electricity, so that by 1780 there was a university in Berlin in everything save name and organization.
After 1744, through the subjects proposed for prizes, the academy became a sort of guide in study and research for some of the best minds in Europe. Small as the prizes were, fifty ducats at first and after 1747 a gold medal, they were contended for by the most eminent scholars and thinkers of the day. Such men as Euler, La Grange, d'Alembert, Kant, Rousseau, Herder, Lessing and Moses Mendelssohn entered the lists for them. In general, the themes proposed required a thorough knowledge of an entire discipline and a discussion of its fundamental principles. For the prize of 1780 forty-two papers were sent in. During the forty-six years of Frederick's reign 26 German works were crowned, and 10 French. One written in Italian received the prize. Of 45 themes treated, 20 were medical or physical in their character, and 25 philosophical, philological or literary. It is a fact worthy of note as indicating the intellectual attainments of the ministry of the period, that ten of thirty-eight works winning the prize were written by ministers of the Reformed or Lutheran church. In the twenty years following this period the average was even higher.
The eighteenth century was not favorable to exact historical study. It was fortunate, therefore, that the academy continued to offer prizes for the discussion of historical themes. The spirit of the time was philosophical rather than scientific or historical. The successful didactic poet was in most circles thought to have realized the highest ideal of life. The writings of Rousseau, Kant and the German idealists were the means of extending the range of thought, giving it a new direction, and of introducing a series of questions which demanded immediate and thorough answer. Advocates of the Leibniz-Wolff philosophy were opposed by the followers of Newton and the French school. For a number of years themes were presented by the academy which seemed to have for their object the overthrow of the philosophy of Leibniz, and the substitution of that of Newton in its place. But these were not the only subjects discussed. J. D. Michaelis, the orientalist, won the prize for 1759 by pointing out, in the best way possible at the time, the reciprocal influence of the people on their language, and of language upon opinion. In 1763 Moses Mendelssohn answered, in a manner which satisfied the academy, the question, 'Is metaphysical knowledge susceptible of the same evidence as mathematical?' and received the prize, though he had no less a rival than Immanuel Kant. Yet the rejected essay of Kant gave the death blow to the philosophy of Wolff. Cochins, court preacher at Potsdam, re-
