ber of observers, and have been concisely demonstrated by Strauss-Durckeim, Liais, and Marey.
But, in considering the difficulty of the construction of our mechanical bird, we were obliged, notwithstanding our desire to make a machine which should be simple and easy to understand, to try to perfect those actions we have somewhat summarily described. It is evident that the different parts of the wing, from its base to its extremity, act on the air under very different conditions. The interior part of the wing, having small velocity, produces little propelling effect at any moment of its beat; but it is far from being useless, and one may imagine how, by presenting its lower face downward and slightly facing the front, it acts during the rapid translation of the bird, like a kite, as well while the wing is being elevated as during its downward motion, and thus sustaining in a continuous manner a portion of the weight of the bird. The middle portion of the wing has a junction intermediate between that of the interior and that of the outer portion, or end, of the wing; so that the wing, during its action, is twisted on itself in a continuous manner from its base to its extremity. The plane of the wing at its base varies but little during flight; the plane of the median part of the wing is very much displaced on one and the other side of its mean position; finally, the outer part of the wing, and especially its tip, experiences considerable change of plane. This warping of the wing is modified at each instant during its elevation and depression, in the manner just indicated; at the extreme points of its beat the wing is nearly plane. The action of the wing is thus seen to be intermediate between that of an inclined plane and that of a screw with a very long and continually variable pitch.
Notwithstanding the differences found to exist in the hypotheses of various authors when compared with one another and with the one just given, still one or the other of these writers confirms the greater portion of the ideas just advanced. Thus the torsion of the wing had already been pointed out by Dutrochet, and especially by Pettigrew, who long maintained this opinion; only he has taken, according to our view, the change of form occurring during the elevation of the wing for that of the form occurring during its depression, and vice versa. These authors clearly saw how the articulations of the bones, the ligaments of the wing, the imbrication and elasticity of the quills, bring about the above result. M. d'Esterno had explained the continuous effect, like that of a kite, of the interior portion of the wing during its depression and elevation; and M. Marey had very appropriately designated that portion of the wing as "passive," at the same time, however, maintaining that the most important action of the wing during flight is due to a general change of its plane produced by the rotation of the humerus on itself.
According to our view there is a sharp distinction to be made be-
