The Popes and the Councils 495 All bishops have equal authority immediately from Christ, nor, according to divine law, can it be shown that any one of them is superior to, or subordinate to, another, either in divine or temporal matters. With the consent of the human legislator, other bishops may, together or separately, excommunicate the Roman bishop and exercise other forms of authority over him. The determination of the number of churches and of priests, deacons, and other officials necessary to administer them, belongs to the rulers who shall conform to the laws of the faithful people. The temporal possessions of the Church, except such as are necessary for the support of the priests and other minis- ters of the gospel and for the maintenance of divine services and the relief of the helpless poor, may properly, and accord- ing to divine law, be devoted, in whole or in part, by the human law, to public needs and the public defense. Marsiglio's modern independence of thought and methods of criticism may be illustrated by the following passage, in which he questions a universally accepted belief of the Middle Ages. Since, then, it is evident from the Scriptures that Paul Marsiglio's spent two years in Rome, there received all the gentiles who d j scusslon were converted, and preached there, it is clear that he was in pres encein a special sense bishop of Rome, since he fulfilled the duties Rome, of pastor there, having his authority immediately from Christ through revelation and, by the consent of the other apostles, through election. As for St. Peter, on the other hand, I maintain that it can- not be proved by Holy Scripture that he was bishop of Rome, or, what is more, that he ever was in Rome. It is true that, according to a certain popular ecclesiastical legend of the saints, St. Peter reached Rome before St. Paul preached the word there, and was later arrested ; moreover it is related that St. Paul, on his arrival at Rome, engaged with St. Peter in
