122 Readings i?i European History " And although this was firmly and irrevocably ratified a long time ago by decrees of the popes and bishops, still later schisms, dissenting parties, and sects have sprung up in Europe, — for instance, the Bohemians and the Beghards, who were led astray by such heretics as Wycliffe and Huss, living contrary to the decrees and ordinances of the holy popes, acting contrary to the regulations of the Christian Church, and putting no faith in the intercession of the saints and still less in purgatory. " Although such heresy and error were later rejected by all men of Christian belief, and although those who live and remain in such error were considered, recognized, and pro- claimed by the holy councils as sundered members of the mother of Christian churches, still one now finds those who stir up these things anew and who undertake to question that which many years ago was recognized and decided upon by pope and bishop as untrue and erroneous. They undertake to drive us from old customs which have endured and stood in honor these seven hundred years, planning to overturn and upset all things. For first they went at the pope, car- dinals, and bishops ; then they turned all the cloisters topsy- turvy ; after that they fell upon purgatory. And finally they ascended to heaven and attacked the saints and great serv- ants of God. St. Peter with his keys, and even our dear Lady, the Mother of God, have not escaped their disgraceful assaults. And I know of some who have gone so far as to attack even Christ himself." II. Calvin and his Work Three phases of Calvin's work and influence. Perhaps the three most important phases of Calvin's work are the following: (i) He was ever the ardent defender of the Protestants, refuting the calumnies and criticisms of their opponents, denouncing the papacy, and exhibiting what he believed to be the weaknesses and fal- lacies of the Roman Catholic teachings and traditions ;
