§2. LANGUAGE 17
the task of epistemology; for thinking processes enter into knowledge, in our sense of the term, only in so far as they can be replaced by chains of linguistic expressions.
Language, therefore, is the natural form of knowledge. A theory of knowledge must consequently begin with a theory of language. Knowledge is given by symbols—so symbols must be the first object of epistemological inquiry.
What are symbols? It cannot be sufficiently emphasized that symbols are, first of all, physical bodies, like all other physical things. The symbols used in a book consist of areas of ink, whereas the symbols of spoken language consist of sound waves which are as physically real as the areas of ink. The same is true for symbols used in a so-called “symbolic’’ way, such as flags or crucifixes or certain kinds of salutation by a movement of the hand; they all are physical bodies or processes. So a symbol in its general character does not differ from other physical things.
But, in addition to their physical characteristics, symbols have a property which is generally called their meaning. What is this meaning?
This question has occupied philosophers of every historical period and stands in the foreground of contemporary philosophical discussion, so we cannot be expected to give a definite answer at the very beginning of our study. We must start with a provisional answer which may lead our investigation in the right direction. Let us formulate our first answer as follows: Meaning is a function which symbols acquire by being put into a certain correspondence with facts.
If “Paul” is the name of a certain man, this symbol will always occur in sentences concerning actions of, or the status of, Paul; or if “north” means a certain relation of a line to the North Pole of the earth, the symbol “north” will occur in connection with the symbols “London” and
