established his supremacy. Indispensable then as realism was for the Church, its creed, and
1 With every allowance for the phases of church and school in successive academical generations it seems strange that in 1209 Aristotle should have been forbidden under excommu- nication, and in 1231 restored to such favour that for the dis- ciples of Albert and St Thomas the master almost attained the authority of a father of the church; the explanation probably is that "Aristotle" meant for a time the paynim interpretations of Toledo, particularly of the Physics (the Metaphysics were not translated from the Greek till about 1220); and meant not this only, but also liberal quotation and incorporation of the writings of Arab philosophers. To show how learning, even in the University of Paris, lay under ecclesiastical control, some extracts from the Edicts of the Synod of Paris and of Gregory the Ninth may be cited in illustration :-After direct- ing that "Corpus magistri Amaurici extrahatur e cimiterio, et projiciatur in terram non benedictam " the Synod farther orders that the "Quatcrnuli ["Quaternuli" is translated by Ducange, Quatuor quartæ chartæe, sen octo folia: i.e. the octavos] magistri David de Dinant,...afferantur et comiburantur; nec libri Aristotelis de naturali philosophia, nec Commenta legan- tur Parisiis, publice vel secreto. Et hoc sub poena excom- municationis inhibemus...... De libris theologicis scriptis in romano, præcipimus quod episcopis diocesanis tradautur, et Credo in Deum et Pater noster in romano, præter vitas sanctoruin." The order two years later confirming these prohibitions differs but in form. Even the Bull of Gregory in 1231, relieving the schools of this proscription, says, " Ad hæc jubemus ut magistri artium unam lectionem de Prisciano et unam post aliam ordinarie semper legant, et libris illis natura- libus, qui in concilio provinciali ex certa causa prohibiti fuere, Parisiis non utantur, quousque examinati fuerint, et ab omni errorum suspicione purgati." The pope adds paternally, "Magistri vero et scholares theologiæ, in facultate quam
