disassembly. See id. at 1527–28. We see no reason to distinguish observation of copyrighted software in an emulated computer environment. Both methods require the reverse engineer to copy protected as well as unprotected elements of the computer program. Because this intermediate copying is the gravamen of the intermediate infringement claim, see 17 U.S.C. § 106(1); Sega, 977 F.2d at 1518–19, and both methods of reverse engineering require it, we find no reason inherent in these methods to prefer one to another as a matter of copyright law. Connectix presented evidence that it observed the Sony BIOS in an emulated environment to observe the functional aspects of the Sony BIOS. When this method of reverse engineering was unsuccessful, Connectix engineers disassembled discrete portions of the Sony BIOS to view directly the ideas contained therein. We conclude that intermediate copying in this manner was “necessary” within the meaning of Sega.
We decline to follow the approach taken by the district court. The district court did not focus on whether Connectix’s copying of the Sony BIOS was necessary for access to functional elements. Instead, it found that Connectix’s copying and use of the Sony BIOS to develop its own software exceeded the scope of Sega. See Order at 17 (“[T]hey disassembled Sony’s code not just to study the concepts. They actually used that code in the development of [their] product.”). This rationale is unpersuasive. It is true that Sega referred to “studying or examining the unprotected aspects of a copyrighted computer program.” 977 F.2d at 1520 (emphasis added). But in Sega, Accolade’s copying, observation and disassembly of Sega’s game cartridges was held to be fair use, even though Accolade “loaded the disassembled code back into a computer, and experimented to discover the interface specifications for the Genesis console by modifying the programs and studying the results.” Id. at 1515. Thus, the distinction between “studying” and “use” is unsupported in Sega. Moreover, reverse engineering is a technically complex, frequently iterative process. Johnson-Laird, 19 U. Dayton L.Rev. at 843–44. Within the limited context of a claim of intermediate infringement, we find the semantic distinction between “studying” and “use” to be artificial, and decline to adopt it for purposes of determining fair use.[1]
We also reject the argument, urged by Sony, that Connectix infringed the Sony copyright by repeatedly observing the Sony BIOS in an emulated environment, thereby making repeated copies of the Sony BIOS. These intermediate copies could not have been “necessary” under Sega, contends Sony, because Connectix engineers could have disassembled the entire Sony BIOS first, then written their own Connectix BIOS, and used the Connectix BIOS to develop the Virtual Game Station hardware emulation software. We accept Sony’s factual predicate for the limited purpose of this appeal.[2] Our doing so, however, does not aid Sony.
- ↑ We are unable to locate evidence in the record to support the district court’s finding that Connectix “gradually convert[ed] Sony’s code to their own code,” Order at 11, if by this statement the court meant that Connectix engineers failed to create an original work. True, Connectix engineers admitted to combining the Sony BIOS with the Virtual Game Station hardware emulation software to test and develop the hardware emulation software. But in drafting the Connectix BIOS, Connectix engineers never claimed to do anything other than write their own code, even though they used, observed, copied and sometimes disassembled the Sony BIOS as they did so. Sony presents no evidence to the contrary, nor does Sony contend that Connectix’s final product contains infringing material.
- ↑ The depositions of Connectix engineers Aaron Giles and Eric Traut suggest that Connectix engineers recognized that other engineering solutions were sometimes available.
With respect to the observation of the Sony BIOS in an emulated environment, Traut admitted that it was easier to use the Sony BIOS to develop the hardware emulation software than to develop Connectix own BIOS first, and then use the Connectix BIOS to develop the hardware emulation software.
With respect to the observation of the Sony BIOS with selective disassembly of the code,
