652 INDIA.
provinces, a general settlement of the revenue was completed in 1840, fixing the amount to be paid by each village for a period of thirty years ; and a similar course has been adopted in the Punjab. It is estimated that in this case the assessment was about two-thirds of the yearly value — that is, the surplus after deducting expenses of culti- vation, profits of stock, and wages of labour. In the revised settlements, more recently made, it was reduced to one-half of the yearly value. In the Madras Presidency there are three different revenue systems. The zemindary tenure exists in a feAV districts, but prin- cipally in the northern Circars ; the proprietors, of whom some possess old ancestral estates, and others were created landholders in 1802, hold the land direct from the Government, on payment of a fixed annual sum. The prominent defects of this system are, that the whole of the waste lands are alienated from the State, and form part of the emohunents of the proprietor, to whom a considerable allowance, estimated at from 15 to 33 per cent, of the revenue, is also made for expenses of management, so that the intluence of the landowner, which is very powerful, owing to the state of dependence in which all classes are placed under him, is often injuriously exercised, par- ticularly in matters of police. In the village-renting system, the villagers stand in the position of the zemindar, and hold the land jointly from the Government, allotting the different portions for culti- vation among themselves; but this involves the serious defect of joint responsibility, and the want of clearly denned individual property in the land. Under the ryotwar system, every registered holder of land is recognised as its proprietor, and pays direct to the Govern- ment : he can sublet, transfer, sell, or mortgage it : he cannot be ejected by the Government, and, so long as he pays the fixed assess- ment, he has the option of annually increasing or diminishing the cultivation on his holding, or he may entirely abandon it. In unfavourable seasons remissions of assessment are granted for loss of produce. The assessment is fixed in money, and does not vary from year to year, except when water is obtained from a Government source of irrigation ; nor is any addition made to the rent for improvements effected at the ryot's own expense. He has, therefore, all the benefit of a perpetual lease without its responsibilities, as he can at any time throw up his lands, but cannot be ejected so long as he pays his dues, and receives assistance in difficult seasons. The original assessment was unfortunately fixed too high, but the reduc- tions and re-assessments made of late years are materially improving the position of the cultivators. An annual settlement is made, not to re-assess the land, but to determine upon how much of his holding the ryot shall pay ; when no change occurs in a holding, the ryot is not affected by the annual settlement, and is not required to attend it. The ryotwar system may be said essentially to prevail
