1190 RUSSIA
these courts was the Court of Cassation, which formed part of the Senate. 1 This system never became general throughout the Empire, a reaction having 1| soon begun. The examining magistrates, who ought on principle to have been irremovable were very rarely confirmed in their office, and the investigation of criminal cases was entrusted to magistrates temporarily appointed. By law of May 20, 1885, the principle of irremovability was restricted ; by laws of | May 9, 1878, and July 7, 1889, the assistance of a jury in certain cases waa * suppressed. A law of July 12, 1889, abolished elective justices of peace- putting in their places, in the country districts, the country chiefs, {zemsJciy nachalnik), nominated by the administration from among candi- dates taken from the nobility, recommended by the nobility, and endowed with wide disciplinary powers against the peasants, and, in the towns, the urban justices [gorodskoi suclia), nominated in the same way ; in both cases, the appointments being made by the Minister of Justice. Justices of peace have been retained only in the two capitals and in six of the largest towns
of the Empire, i t^ i i •
Reformed tribunals, but without juries, were introduced in Poland m 1875 ; in the Baltic Provinces in 1889 ; in the Governments of Ufa, Orenburg, Astrakhan, and Olonets in 1894 ; and in Siberia in 1897. The reformed system of justice was extended over Turkestan, the Provinces of the Steppes, the north-eastern districts of Vologda, and the Transcaspian Province in 1898 and 1899. The tribunals of the days anterior to 1864 have thus everywhere disappeared.
In conjunction with the assemblies of the Volost and Gmina (see Local Government), are cantonal tribunals, consisting of from four to twelve judges elected at cantonal assemblies. Injuries and offences of every kind, as well as disputes relating to property between the peasants, not in- volving more than a hundred roubles, come under the jurisdiction of these popular tribunals. Afiairs of more importance, up to 300 roubles, are; judged by the County Chiefs.
The appeal courts are fourteen : 11 in European Russia and Caucasus (ati St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kharkov, Odessa, Kazan, Saratov, Kiev, Novocher-( kask, Vilna, Warsaw, and Tiflis), and 3 in Asiatic Russia (at Tashkent, i Irkutsk, and Omsk). There are 104 assize courts : 88 in European Russiai and 16 in Asiatic Russia. . f
Since 1905 nearly two-thirds of the Empire having been placed in a statet of siege, the great number of crimes have been judged by the tribunals ofi exception : courts martial, and from August, 1906, to April, 1907, field courtS: martial. Before 1905 the executions were unusual: 281 in 34 years, fromi 1856 to 1890, 126 from 1891 to 1900. The numbers of death sentences and of executions, from November, 1905, to November, 1908, wcre4,8l2 and 2,298 ;: the number of executions without trial was 1,331. Total of executions in; 3 years, 3,629. In 1908, 131,914 persons were judged by normal tribunals V 50,514 of them were acquitted, and 81, 127 condemned to various punishments. The prison population on January 1 of each of the last six years was as follows : —
Years Number of prisoners \ Years
IHJO 1910
Number of prisoners i
180,200 174,492
1911 I 174,7333
The expenditure for iirisons is estimated in the budget for 1912 at the sum of 33,740,259 as against 31,597,277 roubles for 1911.
