tended to swell the ranks of the two factions, was the aspiration of certain castes to rise higher in the social scale. One of the six principal duties of the ancient Hindu kings being the preservation of caste rules and observances as dictated by the Sastras, it is very likely that any violation of the established custom by any member of a caste or tribe would have met with the severest punishment. The Kammalas were, as stated above, a guild of Dravidian or Naga origin, holding a place outside the pale of the Aryan caste system. They were, however, skilful artificers and as such their services were in constant demand by the Brahmans and other classes. During the great temple-building epoch—the tenth and eleventh centuries—the Hindu kings not only patronized these people, but also appointed them permanently for the extension and repair of the temples they had built. In this way their connection with the religious institutions and consequently their closer contact with the Brahmans contributed largely to elevate their social position. And as Sir W. W. Hunter observes, 'the Brahmanical element here finds itself so weak, and so accustomed to compromise with the original population, that the priests have invented a legend, to give a semi-Aryan descent to five castes, which everywhere else rank as Sudras'. But without being content with the concessions and privileges granted to them, they began to clamour for a still higher status, nay, even claimed an equal rank with the Brahmans. This offended the Chola king, pro-
