628 CRUSADES were in the hands of the Christians ; and the tribute exacted from the Christian inhabitants and pilgrims was small. The Fatimite caliphs, who became masters of Jerusalem about 972, pursued the liberal policy of the Abbassides until the time of Hakem, who was a fanatic, and persecuted the Christians, interfered with the pilgrims, and defaced the holy places. His conduct excited much indignation in the West, which abated when his successors returned to the wiser course of his predecessors. The church and the sepulchre assumed their former state, and pilgrimage became more common than ever, embracing men of every condition, and women of all ranks. The Fatimite or Egyp- tian caliphs, though they never again sought deliberately to put a stop to pilgrimage, did not always protect the pilgrims, who had much ill usage to complain of, and who made it known to all Christendom. When the Seljuk Turks conquered Palestine, they inflicted all manner of atrocities on the Christian residents, and treated pilgrims with great indignity and cruel- ty. While the rage that this caused through- out Europe was at its height, the Byzantine emperor, Michael VII., fearing the Turks would take his capital, sent an embassy to Gregory VII. entreating assistance. The pope addressed the rulers of the European states, urging war on the Turks, and foreshadowing the crusades. But the crusades were precipitated by the action of an obscure man, Peter the Hermit, who had become imbued with deep religious en- thusiam. He was a monk, and by birth a Picard. Visiting Jerusalem, he was an eye- witness of the insults and cruelties of the Turks, and experienced some of them. He became possessed of the idea that he was to deliver the holy sepulchre, and told the patriarch of Jeru- salem that he would cause the western nations to drive out the infidels. The patriarch gave him letters entreating aid, and Peter visited Urban II., who saw that he was an enthu- siast, and not the less likely to move Chris- tendom because of his austerity, vehemence, and humble condition. The pope encouraged him, and Peter departed to preach a crusade in Italy and France, which he did with such effect that all other business was neglected, and the minds of men of all degrees were most powerfully affected. Christendom then felt the disgrace involved in allowing the Holy Land to remain in the hands of the Turks. Pilgrimages had become so common that they were made by companies of thousands ; and their violent interruption was everywhere felt and resented. Human policy turned religious zeal to a useful purpose. Those statesmen who were capable of taking a broad view of affairs may have thought there was great danger that the Mussulmans would come to the West if the Christians should not go to the East. The pope wished to bring the Byzantine empire into the Latin fold. He held a council at Pia- cenza in March, 1095, which was numerously attended, and at which the Byzantine envoys pleaded their country's cause. It was deter- mined to hold a more general council, which met at Clermont in November, 1095, and French, Germans, Italians, and others were present. The pope's eloquence was so effectual that when he declared the holy war was commanded from on high, the multitude exclaimed, " God wills it ! God wills it ! " The pope suggested that those who entered on the enterprise should as- sume the cross on the shoulder or breast. This was agreed to, and the first clergyman who took it, from the hands of Urban II., was the bishop of Puy. The count of Toulouse was the first temporal prince who assumed the cross. The cross was originally red, but different colors were subsequently adopted by different nations. Every person who assumed the cross was known as a croise, or cross-wearer, whence the name of the enterprise. The crusading spirit spread over Britain and the northern nations, much inflamed by the decree passed at Clermont that whoso should go on the expedition should be regarded as having per- formed all penances. It was to be a pilgrim- age on the largest scale, with the pilgrims armed. The spirit was shared by all classes, and by people of every description, including the worst criminals. The number that as- sumed the cross was almost incalculable. In the spring of 1096 a large body of the lower orders, under the lead of Peter the Hermit, began the march across Germany. They were compelled to divide, and the smaller party, led by a Burgundian knight, Walter the Penniless, going in advance, was annihilated in Bulgaria. The larger party suffered severely, and was guilty of great atrocities, but Peter brought the bulk of it to Constantinople, where he was joined by Walter. They were landed in Asia, where they were nearly all destroyed by the Turks, Peter having left them. A third division, consisting of Germans, led by a monk named Gottschalk, was massacred in Hungary. A fourth, estimated at 200,000, and composed of various peoples, was led by some nobles from Germany, but it was destroyed by the Hungarians, after having perpetrated terrible outrages. The real crusade was very different from these rabble gatherings. No king joined it, but it was headed by a number of eminent feudal princes: Godfrey de Bouillon, duke of Lower Lorraine, Robert, duke of Normandy, Hugh, count of Vermandois, Raymond, count of Tou- louse, the counts of Flanders and Chartres, Bohemond, prince of Taranto, Tancred, and oth- ers. Godfrey is often mentioned as the leader of the crusading hosts, but he held no such posi- tion, though much was conceded to him. After many adventures, including contests with the Greeks, to whose emperor most of the chiefs took the oath of fealty, the crusaders were uni- ted in Asia Minor, where they besieged Nicsea, which surrendered to the Greeks. The first great encounter with the Turks took place at Dorylseum, July 4, 1097, and, after a long doubt- ful contest, ended in their victory. Pursuing
