532 CRUSENSTOLPE CRUSTACEA "Chivalry and the Crusades" (1838); the latter volumes of Gibbon's "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire ;" Procter's " History of the Crusades" (London, 1854); and Gray's " Children's Crusade " (New York, 1870). CRUSENSTOLPE, Magnus Jacob, a Swedish author, born at Jonkoping March 11, 1795, died in January, 1865. He was appointed as- sessor of the superior court of Stockholm in 1825, and became generally known in 1828 by a political work (Politiska dsigter), in which he eulogized what he termed the era of lib- erty, extending from 1719 to 1772. In con- cert with Hjerta he became in the same year editor of an opposition political paper, but the two collaborators soon separated, each to found a journal of his own. Hjerta established the Aftonbladet, which still exists, advocating ex- treme democratic ideas, while Crusenstolpe became editor in 1830 of the Fademeslandet, in which he renounced the liberal principles he had formerly maintained, and which ceased when the patronage of government was with- drawn from it in 1833. In 1834 appeared his Skildringar ur det inre of dagens historia, a piquant melange of truth and poetry on ques- tions of social order, which passed through many editions ; and subsequently he purchased the Tessin library, celebrated for its historical manuscripts, from which he took the materials for his Portefeuille (5 vols., 1837-'45), and for his Historislc tafia af Gustav IV. Adolptts forsta lefnadsdr (1837). From 1838 to 1851 he published a political almanac under the title Stallningar och forhdllanden, which had great popularity, but which reflected upon the gov- ernment, and caused his imprisonment for three years, a condemnation that resulted in several violent riots. His Morianen (6 vols., Stockholm, 1840-'44) is a romantic description of the history of Sweden during the Holstein- Gottorp dynasty. He afterward published a number of novels, including Bigtfadern (1842), Carl Johan och Svenskame (1845 -'6), and Euset Tessin (1847-'9). His stories show skill in the construction of the plot, and great purity of style. They are very popular in northern Europe, and most of them have been translated into German. CRUSH'S, Christian August, a German theologian and philosopher, born at Leuna, near Merse- burg, Jan. 10, 1715, died in Leipsic, Oct. 18, 1775. He was educated at Leipsic, where he was professor of theology at the time of his death. He was among the principal opponents of the reigning philosophy of Leibnitz and Wolf, which he challenged at once in the name of reason and faith, asserting its incompatibility with Christian dogmas ; and he sought to estab- lish a new philosophical scheme which should be perfectly orthodox. Philosophy is in his view the whole body of rational truths, whose objects are eternal, and is divided into logic, metaphysics, and disciplinary or practical phi- losophy. He subordinated the scholastic prin- ciple of contradiction to that of conceptibility (Gedenlcbarlceit), founded logic upon psychol- ogy, attributed to the soul fundamental facul- ties and a liberty almost as complete as that of the Deity, and made the certainty of human knowledge consist in an inward constraint and inclination of the understanding, the guarantee of the truthfulness of which exists in the divine veracity. The most important of his publica- tions are: Entwurf der nothwendigen Ver- nunftwahrheiten (Leipsic, 1745); Logik, oder Weg zur Gewissheit und ZuverldssigTceit der menscJilicJien ErTcenntniss (1747) ; and Anlei- tung uber naturliche Begebenheiten ordentlich und vorsicJitig zu denken (1774). CRUSTACEA, soft-shelled aquatic animals, as the lobsters, crabs, shrimps, &c. Aristotle gave the name fia^aKdarpaKa to this group, to distinguish it from that of the harder-shelled animals, which he called boTpan6fepua, or tes- tacea, the mollwca of our present system of arrangement. In this system the Crustacea constitute one class of the primary division articulata of the animal kingdom, and the term malacostraca has been retained for one great section of the class, while another is called the entomostraca, or shelled insects. The sub- divisions of these sections are variously pre- sented by different authorities. Those of the malacostraca, as given by Milne-Edwards, are generally adopted. They are as follows : I. MANDIBTJLATA (with jaws). 1. Eyes on peduncles, and movable ; feet 10. Brachyura, short-tailed as crabs. Anomura as hermit crabs, &c. Macrura, long-tailed as lobsters, shrimps, fec. Orders. Decapoda. e-v, _-,_ j Unipeltata as squilla. Stomapoda. -j Bipeltata _ a8 phyllosorna, lucifer, &c. 2. Eyes sessile and immovable ; feet 14. Amphipodaas gammarus, &c., having feet simple and claw- shaped. lcemodipoda&s leptomera, &c. Jsopoda as oniscus or wood louse, armadillo, &o. The entomostraca are divided by the same authority into the Order*. 3. Brancfdopoda. Phyllopoda&s apus, &c. Cladocera as daphnia, &c. Copepoda as cyclops, &c. Ostrapod 4. Entomostraca Proper. yclops, &c. ipoda as cypris, &c. II. HAUSTELLATA (suctorial crustaceans). Aranceiformes extremities long and slender, adapted for walking. Siphonostomata extremities not adapted for walking. Lernceiformes extremities rudimentary. The Crustacea are furnished with organs of respiration fitted, unlike those of the other ar- ticulata, for use beneath the surface of the wa- ter ; and they are provided with a shell which is either a horny tegument, as in the case of the shrimp, or a calcareous crust, as in the lob- ster not stony like those of the mollusca. It is in fact an external articulated skeleton se- creted from their own bodies, and periodically thrown off and renewed. In casting its shield
