| FINLAND | 201 |
various branches traverse the north, rise to an altitude of about 2,400 ft. The principal geological formation is red granite with hard limestone and slate. The granite is soft and readily disintegrates. The soil is poor and stony, but long furnished considerably more grain than was required for home consumption. The climate is more severe than that of Sweden, although resembling it in many other respects. Dense fogs are frequent, and the rains in autumn are very heavy. In the southern provinces the winter lasts seven months. In the northern the sun disappears in December, and is not seen again until the middle of January; but during the short summer it is almost continually above the horizon.—The mineral products comprise bog iron, lead, sulphur, arsenic, and a little copper ore. Salt is very scarce, and is one of the principal articles of importation. The entire mineral produce of the country was in 1870 valued at $1,152,245. Among the fauna are the bear, wolf, elk, deer, beaver, polecat, and various kinds of game. Large herds of reindeer are domesticated in the north, and cattle breeding is a prominent branch of industry. Seals and herrings are caught off the coasts, and the lakes and streams abound in salmon and a small species of herring which form an important part of the food of the inhabitants. Finland was formerly called the granary of Sweden; but since the Russian conquest agricultural production is said to have declined. The chief crops are barley, rye, hops, hemp, flax, oats, leguminous plants, and potatoes. A little tobacco, carrots, colewort, parsnips, and onions are also grown. Wild berries are almost the only fruit. The forests are extensive, reaching N. to lat. 69°, consisting principally of pine and fir, but containing also beech, elm, oak, poplar, ash, and birch. These forests are one of the chief sources of national wealth, but have been much wasted by a system of manuring land with their ashes. The soil requires frequent stimulus, and when the cleared land ceases to produce sufficiently it is abandoned for other portions of soil, the timber of which is purposely burned. Much tar, pitch, and potash, however, as well as firewood, are still exported. The pasture lands are good, but ill managed.—Manufactures are chiefly domestic. The peasant prepares his own tar, potash, and charcoal, builds his own boat, makes his own chairs and tables, and in his cottage are woven the coarse woollen and other fabrics of which his dress is composed. But there are several cotton manufactories. In 1865 there were in Finland 32 manufactories of tobacco, 19 of glassware, 7 of paper, and various others. The aggregate produce of the Finnish manufactures in 1865 was valued at $2,962,880; the number of workmen employed was 6,946. The exports of Finland amounted in 1870 to $8,514,720 ($3,200,000 to Russia), and the imports to $7,848,480 ($2,769,600 from Russia). The chief articles of export were timber and wooden ware, butter, iron, corn, tar, and fish; the chief imports were coffee, iron, sugar, raw cotton, salt, tobacco, wine, and brandy. Of foreign countries, England ranks first as regards the exports of Finland, and Germany first as regards its imports. Finland has two banks: one national bank, Finlands Bank, established in 1811, and administered since 1868 by deputies of the diet; and one private, Föreningsbanken i Finland, founded in 1862, which in 1870 had branches in 17 towns. The commercial marine consisted in 1870 of 78 steamships and 504 sailing vessels, of 81,352 tons, manned by 5,742 sailors. The largest number of commercial vessels is owned by the town of Brahestad; next in order follow Abo, Nystad, Vasa, Uleaborg, and Jakobstad. Not included in the above number are 1,109 coasting vessels, of 52,054 tons. There is regular steamship connection all along the coast from St. Petersburg to Tornea, as well as on most of the lakes in the interior of the country. There are 14 lighthouses and 740 pilots distributed among 97 stations. The first railway was opened in 1862 between Helsingfors and Tavastehuus; in 1870 the railway between St. Petersburg and Helsingfors was completed, and in 1874 that between the former city and Hango. The entire length of the Finnish railways in 1871 was 298 m., of telegraph lines 1,686 m., and of telegraph wires 2,758 m. In 1869 a submarine telegraph was laid between Sweden and Finland, via the Aland islands.—With the exception of 41,000 Greek and 800 Roman Catholics, nearly the whole population are Lutherans, divided into three dioceses. The archbishop resides at Abo, the two bishops at Borga and Kuopio. Education receives considerable care, and the study of the Finnish language, which was much neglected while the country was subject to Sweden, is encouraged by the Russian government. Besides the Alexander university, transferred from Abo to Helsingfors, there are six gymnasiums, 13 superior elementary schools, and a military academy, and most of the parishes have primary schools. In 1864 a Finnish normal school was established at Jyväskylä; and in 1871 the establishment of two Swedish normal schools, one male and one female, was ordered. In 1872 the study of the Russian language in all state schools was made compulsory; up to that time it had been optional, and, from the aversion of the Finns to all that is Russian, generally neglected.—Since 1809 Finland has been united with the empire of Russia. Its fundamental laws are the Swedish constitution of 1772, and the act of union of 1789. These were confirmed by the emperor Alexander I., March 27, 1809; again by the emperor Nicholas, Dec. 24, 1825; and by Alexander II., March 4, 1855. The right of representation was regulated anew by a law in 1869. The government is administered by a governor general and a senate consisting of 14 members, half of whom are noble, and who are presided over by the governor general assisted by two vice presi-
