414 LIEBER LIEBIG law school of the same institution. During this long period he published numerous impor- tant works, among which are : " A Manual of Political Ethics" (2 vols. 8vo, Boston, 1838), adopted by Harvard college as a text book, and commended by Kent and Story; "Legal and Political Hermeneutics, or Principles of Interpretation and Construction in Law and Politics" (1838); "Laws of Property: Es- says on Property and Labor " (18mo, New York, 1842) ; and " Civil Liberty and Self-Gov- ernment" (2 vols. 12mo, Philadelphia, 1853; new ed., 1874). Special branches of polity or civil administration also engaged his attention, particularly the subject of penal legislation, among his writings on which are : "Essays on Subjects of Penal Law and the Penitentiary System," published by the Philadelphia prison discipline society ; an essay on the " Abuse of the Pardoning Power," republished by the legislature of New York ; " Remarks on Mrs. Fry's Views of Solitary Confinement," pub- lished in England ; and a " Letter on the Peni- tentiary System," published by the legislature of South Carolina. Among his occasional papers are a " Letter on Anglican and Galilean Liberty ;" a paper on the vocal sounds of Laura Bridgman, the blind deaf mute, compared with the elements of phonetic language, published in the " Smithsonian Contributions to Knowl- edge;" and numerous addresses on anniversary and other occasions. He published his inau- gural address as professor in Columbia college on " Individualism and Socialism or Commu- nism," which he regarded as the two poles on which all human life turns ; also his introduc- tory discourse to a course of lectures on the state in the college law school, entitled " The Ancient and the Modern Teacher of Politics." In 1863 he was one of the founders of the loyal publication society, of which he served as pres- ident. More than 100 pamphlets were pub- lished under his supervision, of which 10 were by himself. His "Guerrilla Parties consid- ered with Reference to the Law and Usages of War" (1862), written at the request of Gen. Halleck, was often quoted in Europe in the discussions evoked by the Franco-German war ; and his " Instructions for the Government of the Armies of the United States in the Field " (1863) was ordered by President Lincoln to be promulgated in the general orders of the war department. In 1867 he published "Reflec- tions on the Changes Necessary in the Present Constitution of the State of New York," "Me- morial relative to Verdicts of Jurors," and "The Unanimity of Juries;" and in 1868 " International Copyright " and " Fragments of Political Science on Nationalism and Interna- tionalism." As regards the exterior relations of political economy, he believed in free trade, and his pamphlet, "Notes on Fallacies of American Protectionists," was published in this country and in England. In 1865 he was appointed superintendent of a bureau at Wash- ington for the preservation of the records of the confederate government, and in 1870 he was chosen, by the united approval of the United States and Mexico, as final arbitrator in important cases pending between the two countries. This work was not completed at his death. See " The Life, Character, and Writings of Francis Lieber," a lecture deliv- ered before the historical society of Pennsylva- nia, by M. Russell Thayer (Philadelphia, 1873). II. Oscar Montgomery, son of the preceding, born in Boston, Sept. 8, 1830, died in Richmond, Va., June 27, 1862. He was educated in Ber- lin, Gottingen, and Freiberg. He was the au- thor of " The Assayer's Guide," "The Analyti- cal Chemist's Assistant," translated from the German of Wohler (1852), Der Itacolumit, seine Begleiter und die Metallfuhring dessel- len (1860), and of various articles on mining in reference to this country in the New York " Mining Magazine." He was state geologist of Mississippi in 1850-'51 ; was engaged in the geological survey of Alabama in 1854-'5 ; and from 1856 to 1860 held the office of mineralo- gical, geological, and agricultural surveyor of South Carolina. His first annual report of the last mentioned survey was published in 1857, and the fourth and last in 1860. In 1860 he accompanied the "American Astronomical Ex- pedition " to Labrador as geologist. He joined the confederate army at the outbreak of the civil war, and died of wounds received in the battle of Williamsburg. LIEBHARD, Joachim. See CAMEEAEITJS. LIEBIG, Justus yon, baron, a German chemist, born in Darmstadt, May 12, 1803, died in Munich, April 18, 1873. While a youth he was taught in the gymnasium of his native town ; and, after spending ten months in an apothecary's establishment, he entered in 1819 the university of Bonn. Afterward at Erlan- gen he obtained the degree of M. D. By the assistance of the grand duke of Hesse-Darm- stadt he was enabled in 1822 to visit Paris, where he devoted two years to the study of chemistry. In 1824 he read a paper before the French institute on the chemical composi- tion of fulminates, which attracted the atten- tion of Humboldt, and by his influence Liebig was appointed adjunct professor of chemistry at Giessen. In 1826 he was made professor in the university, and soon established a labora- tory for teaching practical chemistry, the first of the kind in Germany. It became a resort for students from different parts of the world, and especially from England, among whom are found the names of Lyon Playfair, Gregory, and Johnston. Hofmann, Will, and Fresenius were his assistants. In 1832 Liebig with Prof. Geiger of Heidelberg established the Annalen der Pharmacie, to which he continued to be a contributor till near the time of his death, and scarcely a volume of which up to 1802 does not contain some important paper by him. In 1838 he visited England, and at the meeting of the British association for the advancement of science read a paper on lithic acid, in which
