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two plates of iron slightly wedging were to be driven one on each side between the jaws of the chairs flat against the sides of the two rails. Instead of this, however, a pair of iron or steel plates 18 in. long, ¾ in. thick, and about 3 in. wide, are bolted together through the rails with ¾ or ⅞ in. bolts, the holes in the rail being elongated to allow for contraction and expan- sion. Another form of fish joint is construct- ed by applying the bars to the flange of the rails and bolting them firmly to a suspension plate extending under the joint from one rail to the other. Nearly all the forms of the fish joint will give a smooth track when first laid, but the natural tendency of the nuts holding the fish plates to the rails is to work loose and thus to weaken the joint. Various devices more or less efficient have been invented for locking the nut and thus insuring the stiffness of the joint. In order that trains of cars may pass from one track to another an extra pair of rails are laid down, which can be moved so as to complete the connection with either one of the lines as desired and break it with the other. These movable rails are called switch- es, and are commonly controlled by a long bar under the surface connecting with an upright lever at the side of the road. This is in the care of the men known as switch tenders, whose duty it is to see before the approach of every train that the rails are so placed as to carry it upon the right track. Turn-tables are plat- forms constructed of wood or iron which can be pushed round upon a circular track sunk be- low the level of the ground. A locomotive or car being run on to the platform, it is thus easily turned about or directed upon any other diverging track, numbers of which usually con- centrate around the turn-tables.—The passen- ger cars or carriages used upon railroads are generally constructed after either the English or American plan. The for- mer had its origin in the old- fashioned stage coach, and in many instances preserves the outlines of the stage coach body on its sides. It is gen- erally about 24 ft. long and di- vided into four compartments, each carrying six passengers. Each compartment is uphol- stered according to the class to which it belongs, and is furnished with two doors for ingress and egress, the upper parts of which are of glass. These compartments have no communication with each oth- er, nor is there any means of passing from one carriage to another, except by the preca- rious means of a foot board running along the outside of the carriages. They are carried by four and sometimes six wheels, fastened rigidly together. The American passenger car, as be- fore shown, had its origin in the sharp curves of the American railroads, and was originally con- structed by splicing two common English car- riages together and placing a pair of bogie trucks under each end. At first these trucks were made with four wheels, but now they are frequently made with six and eight, the weight of the car being equally distributed over them by means of equalizing beams. The cars are from 46 to 60 ft. long, are entered by doors at the ends, and carry from 44 to 62 passengers. They are warmed by stoves or hot-water heat- ers, and are furnished with water and water closets, while the English carriages have none of these conveniences. The American cars were formerly coupled into trains by means of links and pins, but these together with the weak platforms connecting them were found to be the cause of many accidents. They have been replaced to a great degree by Miller's patent buffer, coupler, and platform, which couple the cars automatically, hold them together without motion, and in case of accident, the platform being strongly trussed, the danger of crushing or telescoping is entirely obviated. Sleeping cars were first adopted by a few of the lead- ing American railroads about 1858, but they were for the most part crude and unsatisfac- tory in their arrangement and appointments. They were constructed under a variety of patents, employed various devices which had not yet been perfected by experience, were chiefly used for local travel, and did not leave the roads owning them. It soon became ap- parent that a class of cars that could be used both night and day, and run between distant points over several different roads, would be necessary to supply the growing want of the public. In 1864 George M. Pullman invented and patented a car designed to meet all the re- quirements of the problem, and so great was its success that it grew rapidly into popular favor, and supplanted all others. In 1867 the Pullman palace car company was organized for the purpose of conducting the sleeping car business, now rapidly increasing in magnitude and importance. It contracts to furnish its
