PRISONS AND PRISON DISCIPLINE 15 lastic instruction ; those without trades must serve an apprenticeship. The prison libraries comprise upward of 150,000 volumes, about one half religious. In Cisleithan Austria all prisons are under the jurisdiction of the min- istry of justice ; matters of minor importance, however, are intrusted to the local and inter- mediate authorities. Since 1867 there has been an inspector general of prisons. There are 18 prisons (12 for males, having in 1872 about 9,000 inmates, and 6 for females, with 1,500 inmates) for persons sentenced to more than one year of imprisonment ; 62 for those sentenced to less than one year, which are also used for persons convicted of lighter offences ; and prisons of the district courts for minor offences. Separate prisons are used for men and women. Until recently only the associated system of imprisonment existed, and it now prevails in nearly all the prisons. The con- victs are classified in groups of 6 to 30, day and night, and are allowed to converse together ex- cept when at work. All prisons constructed since 1867 have been so arranged that associated imprisonment may be combined with cellular. Provisions for cellular treatment are found in the prisons of Gratz, Stein, Karthaus, and Pilsen. By the law of April 1, 1872, cellular imprisonment is limited to three years, with the provision that after three months of isola- tion two days passed in a cell are to be reck- oned as three in the term of the sentence. In all prisons where the collective system prevails, a classification of prisoners is maintained in the dormitories, based on the age, education, state of mind, and former life of the convict, and the kind of crime committed. There is no way in which a convict may secure an abbrevi- ation of his sentence except by being recom- mended for pardon to the emperor. Penal la- bor does not exist ; a wide range of industries are carried on within, and some without, the prisons. The contract system is preferred where suitable contractors can be found ; oth- erwise the industries are managed directly by the state. Convicts are entitled to a share of their earnings, to be used partly while in prison and partly after release. If the prison- er has property, it is liable for the cost of his imprisonment. Trades are taught to the un- skilled. Corporal punishment is not practised. The severest punishments are chains, diminu- tion of food, hard bed, isolated confinement, and dark cell. Banishment after the expira- tion of the sentence is recognized by the pe- nal code. The prisons are generally provided with chaplains, schools, and libraries, though the last are of recent origin. School atten- dance is obligatory upon convicts of a suitable age. Political prisoners are absolved from compulsory labor and from wearing prison clothes. In Switzerland most of the cantons prescribe three kinds of imprisonment: re- elusion, perpetual or temporary detention in a house of correction, and simple imprison- ment. Many of the cantons are introducing 686 VOL. xiv. 2 important reforms into their prison systems, including progressive classification and provi- sional liberation. In the penitentiary of Neuf- chatel, which has an average of 80 inmates, many of the features of the Crofton system have been adopted. The excellent system of discipline, labor, rewards, education, privi- leges, &c., adopted here by Dr. Guillaume, the director, has made this one of the model prisons of Europe. The penal system of Italy is in a state of transition. The t new code retains the death penalty, and prescribes as secondary punishments the bagnio for life (ergastolo), reclusion, and relegation. As a general rule ergastolo must be passed in one of the islands in continual separation for the first ten years, and afterward in congregate imprisonment. Sentences to reclusion and re- legation, which are penalties of temporary du- ration, are to be served upon the congregate plan. Not fewer than 3,000 convicts are en- gaged in agricultural work, and 1,500 employ- ed by private contractors or municipal bodies in the construction of ports and roads, in col- lecting and transporting salt from the mines of Cagliari and Portoferrajo, in working iron mines, in masonry, and in other outdoor occu- pations. At the penal settlement of Cagliari much attention is given to the rearing of the silkworm, and at Alghero the culture of to- bacco is a prominent industry. More than 1,000 prisoners are employed at the three agricultural colonies on the islands of Pia- nosa, Gorgona, and Capraia, in the Tuscan ar- chipelago, chiefly in the cultivation of vines, olives, and cereals. The prisoner is entitled to a share of the product of his labor. He is required to attend school, where among other things he is taught the science of agri- culture. The agricultural colonies are intend- ed for those convicts who have been sen- tenced to reclusion, relegation, or simple im- prisonment, and who have distinguished them- selves in the penal establishments by good conduct. In nearly all the countries of Eu- rope efforts are made to aid liberated prison- ers by securing for them employment and protection. This work is generally done by prisoners' aid or patronage societies, aided sometimes by the government. In some in- stances direct efforts are made by the govern- ment in behalf of discharged convicts. The Netherlands society for the moral ameliora- tion of prisoners, both before and after dis- charge, has its seat in Amsterdam, with as many as 40 branches in different parts of the country. Denmark has prisoners' aid associa- tions in the vicinity of each of its four great prisons. In England much importance is giv- en to aiding convicts after discharge, and 34 societies have been established for this pur- pose. A semi-official character is given to them by the fact that they hold in trust the gra- tuities allowed by law to discharged convicts. Prisoners are also placed for a limited time after discharge under the surveillance of the
