RICHELIEU 31T with the nephew of the duke de Luynes, con- stable of France, he' received the cardinal's hat (1622), reentered the state council, and soon after, in spite of the unabated dislike of Louis XIII., rose to the premiership. His policy comprised three principal designs for the con- solidation of the monarchy and the greatness of France : 1, the consummation of the work of Louis XI. by the extinction of the last re- mains of feudalism, and the full subjection of the high nobility to the royal power; 2, the subjugation of Protestantism in France, where it had assumed a character as much political as religious ; 3, the abasement of the house of Austria, by crushing its ambition for uni- versal domination, and consequently the ele- vation of the power of France abroad. As a preliminary step, he took from Austria the passes of the Valtellina, and secured them by treaty (1626) to Switzerland ; and in the same year he set on foot the war against the Prot- estants and England, which extended to them her protection. Richelieu determined to strike at once a decisive blow, by taking from the Protestants their most important stronghold. The siege of La Rochelle was begun, and prosecuted with an activity to which the pres- ence of the cardinal himself added a new im- pulse. The besieged made so desperate a re- sistance that the population of the city was reduced by war and famine from 30,000 to 5,000 souls, when they surrendered on Oct. 28, 1628. This event, followed by the treaty of Alais and the edict of Nimes, put an end to the political power of Protestantism in France, and one of Richelieu's designs was accomplished. The other, against the high nobility, had already been attained by the im- prisonment in the castle of Vincennes of the marshal d'Ornano, confidant and favorite of Gaston of Orleans, brother of the king. On hearing of that bold measure, the lords .has- tened to Fontainebleau, and there laid the first plot against the life of the cardinal, who, being informed of it, decided at once to make such an example as would strike terror into the hearts of his enemies. The count de Chalais of the house of Perigord, a giddy young man, led away far more by his love for the duchess de Chevreuse than by any political hatred, was arrested and imprisoned in the castle of Am- boise. It is said that he was there seduced into disclosures against the queen by promises of mercy, but he was beheaded in 1626, his accomplices being either detained in prison or dispersed. But Richelieu meant to bring the nobility to practical obedience and submission to the royal power. In order to stop a bloody mania which threatened to deprive the coun- try of the flower of its young noblemen, the penalty of death had been proclaimed against those who should fight duels. In defiance of the ordinance, in 1627 Francois de Montmo- rency, seigneur de Bouteville, and the count des Chapelles, young nobles of the highest rank, fought in Paris, in the Place Royale itself, and both paid the penalty with their lives. The consolidation of the government at home did not divert the cardinal from carrying out his plans abroad. Charles de Gonzague, duke of Nevers, legitimate heir to the duchy of Mantua, without any help but the protection of France, was maintained in possession of his inheri- tance by force of arms. This war set at vari- ance for the first time the cardinal and Maria de' Medici, who now joined Anne of Austria in opposition to the prime minister. The misun- derstanding soon became a deep hatred. The queen mother determined to destroy her for- mer favorite, and the cardinal was informed of his dismissal. There was great exultation at court, but Richelieu went to Versailles, where Louis XIII. had gone to hunt, and in a brief in- terview fairly frightened him into a reconcilia- tion. This event is known under the name of lajournee des dupes. Richelieu, more power- ful than ever, took revenge at once upon his declared opponents. Marillac, who had been selected as his successor, was exiled to Lisieux, while his more important brother, the marshal de Marillac, was imprisoned and afterward put to death. Maria de' Medici did not yet con- sider herself defeated, and with the assistance of Gaston of Orleans laid new plots against the cardinal. This proved her ruin ; she was exiled from France in 1631, while her parti- sans either shared her fate or were cast into prison, and for years she wandered about, pur- sued by the implacable resentment of Riche- lieu. In 1631, the year when Richelieu was elevated to the dukedom and peerage, her for- mer associate the duke of Orleans and the marshal duke of Montmorency organized a new rebellion, but were overthrown at Castelnau- dary, and Montmorency was executed. The thirty years' war was then raging in Ger- many. Richelieu did not hesitate to side with the Protestants against the house of Austria, and assisted Gustavus Adolphus by subsidies. The power of Richelieu had now attained its highest prosperity at home and abroad, both his domestic and foreign policy being crowned with success. "While the power of Germany was assailed through the sword of the king of Sweden, the revolution was at the same time encouraged in England, whose court had been a refuge for Maria de' Medici. When Gustavus Adolphus fell at Liitzen (1632), Richelieu con- trived to secure to France new possessions on the left bank of the Rhine, and the services of the duke of Saxe-Weimar with his army. He now declared war against Spain, and was pres- ent at the capture of Perpignan (1642). At last Austria was humiliated, Portugal was sep- arated from Spain (1640), French influence pre- dominated in Catalonia, England was in full revolution, and France quiet and prosperous. Still, the administration of Richelieu was again threatened by intrigues at court or treason in the camps. An attempt, based upon a passion of Louis XIII. for Mile, de Lafayette, had no result but the retirement of the intended mis-
