348 PJTTER RITUALISM Pennsylvania, and other states. He calculated the transits of Venus of June 3, 1769, and Dec. 8, 1874, and made a 'successful observation of the former in his observatory at Norriton. In 1770 he removed to Philadelphia, and in 1775 was elected to the provincial legislature. He was a member of the convention called to form a state constitution, state treasurer from 1776 to 1789, and director of the United States mint from 1792 to 1795. In 1791 he succeeded Franklin as president of the American philo- sophical society, to whose "Transactions" he had contributed many papers, and in 1795 he was chosen a fellow of the royal society of London. See his life by William Barton (8vo, Philadelphia, 1813), and by Prof. James Ren- wick in Sparks's " American Biography." BITTER, Ctrl, a Gecman geographer, born in Quedlinburg, Aug. 7, 1779, died in Berlin, Sept. 28, 1859. He completed his studies at Halle, and in 1798 became tutor in the Beth- mann-Hollweg family at Frankfort, and ac- companied his pupils to the academy of Gene- va, and to various countries. He was profes- sor of history at the gymnasium of Frankfort in 1819-'20, and subsequently' of geography at the university and military academy of Berlin. He created the science of general comparative geography. His most celebrated work is Die Erdkunde im Verhaltnisse zur Natur und Ge- schichte des Menschen. At first it appeared in two volumes (Berlin, 1817-'! 8), but in the second edition the first volume (1822 et seq.) relates exclusively to Africa, and 18 volumes (1832-'59) to Asia. W. L. Gage has translated some of Ritter's work into English, under the titles "Comparative Geography " (Edinburgh, 1865) and " The Comparative Geography of Palestine and the Sinaitic Peninsula " (4 vols., 1866). Ritter also published Europa, ein geo- graphisch-historiscJi-statutischei Gemalde (2 vols., Frankfort, 1807); Die Stupas (Berlin, 1838) ; and Einleitung und Abhandlungen zu einer mehr wissenschaftlichen Behandlung der Erdkunde (1852). After his death were pub- lished his Geschichte der Erdkunde und der Entdeckungen (1861), Allgemeine Erdkunde (1862), and Europa (1863). Among his biog- raphers are Kramer in German (Halle, 1864) and Gage in English (New York, 1867). BITTER, Ileinric h, a German philosopher, born in Zerbst in 1791, died in Gottingen, Feb. 3, 1869. He studied at the universities of Halle, Gottingen, and Berlin, and was professor suc- cessively at all of them, at Gottingen for the last 32 years of his life. He was an eclectic in philosophy. His principal work is Getehichte der Philotophie (12 vols., Hamburg, 1829-'53 ; the part relating to ancient philosophy trans- lated into French by Tissot, 4 vols., Paris, 1836-'7, and into English by A. J. W. Mor- rison, 4 vols., Oxford, 1838-'46 ; additional French translation by Trullard, 2 vols., 1843- '4). Among his other writings are: System der Logik und Metaphysik (2 vols., Gottingen, 1856); Die christliche Philotophie (2 vols., 1858-'9) ; and Encylclopadie der philosophi- schen Wissenschaften (3 vols., 1862-'4). RITUALISM, the science of the rites embodied in a ritual or book of rites. The term is pop- ularly, though inaccurately, applied to a move- ment in churches of the Anglican communion, the three successive periods of which have been called by its opponents " Puseyism," " Tractarianism," and "Ritualism;" but its adherents assert it to be a catholic revival. The principles of ritualism as described by the latter are three. They say, in the first place, that it rests on the declaration set forth in 1571 by the same convocation of Canterbury which first required subscription to the thirty- nine articles: "that preachers should in the first place be careful never to teach anything from the pulpit, to be religiously held and be- lieved by the people, but what is agreeable to the doctrine of the Old and New Testaments, and collected out of that very doctrine by the catholic fathers and ancient bishops." This is held to establish the doctrinal identity of the church of England with the primitive church, and has led to elaborate commentaries by rit- ualistic writers on Holy Scripture, and to the reproduction of patristic teaching on all lead- ing points of faith and practice. The apostolic episcopate and sacramental grace are specially insisted on ; baptismal regeneration is strenu- ously asserted; and the holy eucharist has been made the central object of teaching and the highest act of worship. The frequency as well as the splendor of eucharistic celebrations has steadily increased, and a fasting reception has been encouraged by early celebrations. The real presence of Christ in that sacrament a presence spiritual as opposed to carnal, ob- jective as opposed to the idea that it is only in the heart of the believer, and supralocal as op- posed to the notion that it is contained within and limited to the species of bread and wine has been incessantly advocated, until eucharistic adoration is now openly taught and practised. The voluntary use of private confession and absolution, as a preparation for the reception of the holy communion, has also made consid- erable progress. The second great principle of the ritualists is thus stated in the 30th canon of the English church: "So far was it from the purpose of the church of England to for- sake and reject the churches of Italy, France, Spain, Germany, or any such like churches, in all things which they held and practised, that, as the apology of the church of England con- fesseth, it doth with reverence retain those cer- emonies which do neither endamage the church of God nor offend the minds of sober men; and only departed from them in those particu- lar points wherein they were fallen both from themselves in their ancient integrity, and from the apostolical churches which were their firsl founders." This principle, it is alleged, estab- lishes the fraternal readiness of the church of England for visible reunion with other branches of the apostolic church. The ritualists assert,
