chief consideration in our problem. When we remember how accurately water finds its level, it will be clearer that what is needed in the discussion is the location of the regions that were relatively raised and lowered, as we shall then have marked out the general course of the consequent water ways and the trend of the intervening constructional ridges.
Accepting these postulates, it may be said in brief that the outlines of the formations as at present exposed are in effect so many contour lines of the old constructional surface, on which the Permian rivers took their consequent courses. Where the Trenton limestone is now seen, the greatest amount of overlying strata must have been removed; hence the outline of the Trenton formation is our highest contour line. Where the Helderberg limestone appears, there has been a less amount of material removed; hence the Helderberg outcrop is a contour of less elevation. Where the coal beds still are preserved, there has been least wasting, and these beds therefore mark the lowest contour of the early surface. It is manifest that this method assumes that the present outcrops are on a level surface; this is not true, for the ridges through the State rise a thousand feet more or less over the intervening valley lowlands, and yet the existing relief does not count for much in discussing the enormous relief of the Permian surface that must have been measured in tens of thousands of feet at the time of its greatest strength.
25. Constructional Permian topography and consequent drainage.—A rough restoration of the early constructional topography is given in fig. 21 for the central part of the State, the closest shading being the area of the Trenton limestone, indicating the highest ground, or better, the places of greatest elevation, while the Carboniferous area is unshaded, indicating the early lowlands. The prevalence of northeast and southwest trends was then even more pronounced than now. Several of the stronger elements of form deserve names, for convenient reference. Thus we have the great Kittatinny or Cumberland highland, C, C, on the southeast, backed by the older mountains of Cambrian and Archean rocks, falling by the Kittatinny slope to the synclinal lowland troughs of the central district. In this lower ground lay the synclinal troughs of the eastern coal regions, and the more local Broad Top basin, BT, on the southwest, then better than now deserving the name of basins. Beyond the corrugated area that connected the coal basins rose the great Nittany highland, N,
