It is not easy to sketch the history of this awakening. Ramsay years ago contributed an element in his explanation of plains of marine denudation; Jukes opened the way to an understanding of cross valleys; Newberry excluded fractures from the production of the most fracture-like of all water ways; and our government surveyors in the western territories have fully developed the all important idea of base level, of which only a brief and imperfect statement had previously been current. I cannot say how far European geographers and geologists would be willing to place the highest value on the last named element; to me it takes the place of Lesley's ocean flood, in leading off the whole procession of outdoor facts. It is indispensable at every turn. Recently, mention should be made of Löwl, of Prague, who has done so much to explain the development of rivers, and of McGee, who has explicitly shown that we must "read geologic history in erosion as well as in deposition."
If it be true that the greater part of this second advance is American like the first, it must be ascribed to the natural opportunities allowed us. The topographers of the Appalachians had a field in which one great lesson was repeated over and over again and forced on their attention. The patchwork structure of Europe gave no such wide opportunity. The surveyors of the western territories again found broad regions telling one story, and all so plainly written that he must run far ahead who reads it. It is to this opportunity of rapid discovery and interpretation that Archibald Geikie alludes in the preface to the recent second edition of his charming volume on the "Scenery of Scotland." He says that since the book first appeared he has seen many parts of Europe, "but above all it has been my good fortune to have been able to extend the research into western America, and to have learned more during my months of sojourn there than during the same number of years in the Old Country." (p. vii.)
Our position now is, therefore, while structure determines form as our earlier topographers taught, and while form-producing processes are slow, as had been demonstrated by the English geologists, that the sequence of forms assumed by a given structure during its long life of waste is determinate, and that the early or young forms are recognizably different from the mature forms and the old forms. A young plain is smooth. The same region at a latter date will be roughened by the channeling of its larger streams and by the increase in number of side branches,
