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There is the question, of course, how races arose. To put it clearly: do they all descend from one Adam? Or were there more Adams? Modern evolution, Darwinism, etc., have not yet given a satisfactory answer.
It is emphasised that nearly all races and nations are greatly mixed, that there is no nation, no blood strictly pure; and the question is discussed, whether mixed nations are stronger or weaker, of better physical and mental qualities than those not mixed. What are the limits and degrees of favourable mixture of races and nations? Nations in the course of time change—to what extent and by what means? Do they change physically by crossing? By their daily occupation? By living in the cities? By what they eat? Perhaps even by endemic diseases? And does a change in the body, that is to say of the skeleton, affect mental qualities? Do mental qualities of nations change independently of physical qualities, and in what way? Do these qualities change of themselves or do they develop under the influence of foreign mental contacts? By taking over foreign ideas, manners, institutions? The difficult problem arises of how far nations are original, how far their culture may prove to be independent and self-sufficient.
Such are briefly the problems of the science or philosophy of nationality, a science that has not as yet been firmly constituted as a separate branch of knowledge; these problems are studied by historians, anthropologists, ethnographers, geographers, philosophers of history and sociology—the great extent and depth of these studies in the 19th century and the present century constitute a further proof that nationality is a principle generally recognised and pervading all life of society.
14. It is very important for the understanding and appreciation of the principle of nationality to determine more exactly the relation of the nation to the state. The Pangermanists, even though they appeal also to the principle of nationality, put the state above the nation; in the state they see the sum of social organisation, the highest and leading power, and frequently they declare that the principle of nationality has become antiquated. Similarly, others declare the church to be the highest organisation, others again, the proletarian class. It is my opinion that nation and nationality should be held to be the aim of social effort, while the state should be the means; de facto, every self-conscious nation tries to have its own state.
The principle of nationality is comparatively new, unsettled, whereas the state is a very old institution and so universal that many for that very reason look upon it as the most necessary and most valuable achievement of human society.
There are 27 states in Europe (the German states, 26 in number, are not counted here, and Austria-Hungary is counted as one state), but there are more than twice that many nations in Europe. Ethnographers and linguists do not agree upon the number of individual nations. For instance, some join the Letts with the Lithuanians, others separate them; Mazurians are enumerated as a nation distinct from the Poles, and in a similar way the Ukrainians are distinguished from the Russians, and so on. The problems are not sufficiently cleared up and there are no proper statistics; so it may be stated only approximately that in Europe there are about 70 nations and languages (not dialects). This discrepancy between the number of nations and states means that there are many states nationally mixed: states purely national, composed of one nation only, are practically non-existent. Only a few small and just the smallest states are purely national—Andorra, San Marino, Liechtenstein, Luxemberg, Monaco, Denmark (perhaps Portugal and Holland?).
All larger states are mixed: one can say the larger, the more mixed. Germany (Prussia), Austria-Hungary, Russia (and Turkey) are the most mixed states. The degree of mixture increases from West to East.
This contrast between the boundaries of states and nations as well as the fact that the nations in the mixed states are striving for independence
