BUILDING. 639 BUILDING. registration of contracts, etc. Each country, each large city is likely to vary in such regula- tions. Another necessary preliminarj' is a knowl- edge of the locality, especially the subsoil, lay of the land, transport facilities, etc., as this affects the placing and price of the building. The first step toward a building on the part of the employer is the selection of an architect. In the case of large jnihlic or corporate undertakings, this is often left to competitive examination, open to all comers, but ordinarily an arcliitect is chosen outright and asked to submit a prelimi- nary sketch. If approved, this is followed by a set of specifications covering every detail of con- struction and finish ; size, kind, and quality of materials; and descrijition of its mise en oeuvre. In making this the architect has due regard to the amount the client wishes to spend. Then a list of contractors is made out to whom the architect sends copies of these specifications, and they send in their bids. The lowest responsible bidder is usually chosen. A contract is then drawn up, usually a modification of a printed formula suj^plied by the architect. It is made to include the specifications, mentions a date for the completion of the work, often with a money penalty for delay, and often stipulating that the contractor should furnish a bond, and that the payment should be made in installments, at cer- tain periods of the work's progress, on the archi- tect's certificate. As one of the great troubles has been the desire of employers to make changes in the course of the work, there is usually some clause regulating how this shall be done so as to avoid dispute. The site is then surveyed and work begun. Great power of decision is given the architect, who either visits the building himself periodically or appoints a clerk of the works to exercise constant supervision to in- sure the exact carrying out of the contract. The usual architect's fee is 5 per cent, of the cost of the completed building, but much less if he exercises no supervision. His greatest work is the preparation of the detailed working plans and drawings, with which he must supplj' the contractor in advance of the work. As for the contractor or master-mechanic, it is customary to employ a single general contractor (though the heating apparatus is often done by separate contract) who is virtually the constructor and manager, and sub-lets to others certain special parts of the work, such as excavating, masonry, ironwork, plumbing, inside woodwork, painting, etc., making contracts with these mechanics, and becoming responsible for their work, or else, as in England, he himself employs these different classes of mechanics. These sub-contractors, and even individual workmen, if unpaid, can, in cer- tain countries, get out mechanics' liens on the building — a sort of first mortgage. The final payment is not made until the work has been ap- proved by the local in: pectors (e.g. plumbing) and accepted by the architect. Modern methods of turning out all classes of material mechani- cally in great quantities at scheduled prices facilitates estimates and makes quick work easier, but leads to a dead level of uniformity. Modem architects have advanced in the qualit3' of their designs far more rapidly than our mechanics and manufacturers have in the artis- tic or even careful treatment of details. To carry, the designs of an aichiteet into effect many mechanical operations are necessary, to all of which collectively the term building is ap- plied. The principal materials used in building are stone, burnt-clay products, cement and lime mi.xtures, wood, glass, and metal. In addition must be considered secondary building materials, among which are included a variety of mineral, vegetable, and animal products, of which paint, varnish, papier-maclu', cloth, and leather are familiar examples. Building operations in their broadest sense include all the operations neces- sary to shape these materials into suitable structural forms, and to combine these forms into a finished structure or building. Xowa- days, however, the shaping of building material into structural forms suitable for building pur- poses is done wholly or in great part in factories and workshops, thus leaving only their erection and some small part of their shaping to be ac- complished on the site of the structure being built. Building operations in their narrowest sense, therefore, include only the erecting and shaping operations actually carried on at the site of the building. To illustrate, the cutting and dressing of stone; the molding and burn- ing of brick and tile; the rough-sawing and dressing of timber into beams, boards, clap- boards, lath, and shingles ; the turning of wooden balusters and pillars, the making and glazing of window-sash, the making of doors, mantels, moldings, newel-posts, railings, etc.; the rolling and framing of steel girders and columns; the forging and founding of grill-work, screws, nails, hinges, and builders' hardware generally, are to-day carried on in factories and workshops, and are essentially manufacturing processes. On the other hand, the laying up of stone and brick into walls, columns, and arches ; the framing of timber into beams, joists, and rafters, erecting them and covering them with sheathing, clap- boards, and shingles; the erection and fire-proof- ing of steel beams and columns ; the setting in place of doors and windows, are of course all done on the site of the building, and are essen- tially building processes. These building processes alone, as distin- guished from the manufacturing processes indi- cated above, and as applied to the construction and erection of buildings for the housing of per- sons and projjerty, are considered below. The principal building processes maj- be enumerated as follows: Stonelaying; bricklaying; fireproof- ing; lathing and plastering; carpentry; glazing; plumbing; painting; and decorating. Stonelaying is the process of laying up or joining together stone to foi-m stonework. Stone- work in buildings includes walls, piers, arches, and trimmings. Walls are generally either rub- ble or ashlar stonework. Rubble stonework is in general used only for foundation walls and for exterior walls — (1) when suitable stone for cut- ting cannot be ol)taincd, ( 2 ) when the expen.se of cut stone is not warranted, and (3) when a rus- tic appearance is desired by the architect. In laying rubble walls (Fig. 1) the rough projec- tions on the stones as they come in various sizes from the qiuirry are broken off. The stonelayer then places the stones in the wall, choosing and alternating the large and small stones so that they will fit together as compactly or with as few void spaces as possible, so that the front and back of the wall is well tied or bonded together, and so that the exposed face of the wall shall
