BYZANTINE AET. 755 BYZANTINE ART. still extant are very numerous. The golden agies for their production were the Fifth to the Sixth and the Tenth to the I'-leventh centuries, though perfection in Uiis branch of art was more con- stant than in any other until the Thirteenth Cen- tury. Among the most beautiful early pieces are theJIonza diptych of Galla Plaeidia (c.440), the Archangel of the British Museum, the Brescia box. and especially the marvelous episcopal ivory throne at Ravenna. Of later works, some of the finest are the "Virgin and Child." the "Cruci- fixion" triptych and the "Coronation of Romanus and Eudoxia" in Paris. One especially interest- ing class is that of the ivory oblong boxes, the only large series that are not religious in charac- ter, caned with lifelike scenes of daily life or borrowed from classic legend and myth — a pecu- liar survival. These can be seen at Sens, Cor- tona, Florence (Carrand), Saint Petersburg, New York (Metropolitan Musevim), London (Saint Kens), and in nearly all large collections of nie- diseval ivories. Surpassing even the ivories, both in their importance for the history of art and in remaining examples, are the Greek illuminated manuscripts. It was in the East that the first works of this sort were executed. The idea of making pictures of all the main events of the Old and Xew Testaments in chronological series, starting in this way, passed into the field of monumental painting in the Fifth Century, and was most fruitful in results. The gold ground, the brilliant coloring, the idealistic qualities, and the opposition to realism of this branch of art made it peculiarly suitable as an expression of the Byzantine spirit. It followed the same his- toric vicissitudes as ivory-carving. The Rossano Gospels, the Vienna and London Genesis, the Vatican roll of Joshua and Topography of Cos- mas, the Syriac manuscript at Florence are the leading early works (Fifth to the Sixth Ceu- turjl. For the middle period, with its peculiar combination of asceticism and classic revival, the typical works are the Homilies of Gregory Na- zianzen and the Psalter in Paris ( BibliothSque Xationale), and the later Menologium of Basil at the Vatican (Xinth to the Tenth Century). A certain number of manuscripts executed by im- perial command are especially magnificent, such as Saint John Chrysostom for Xicei)horu3 Botani- ates (1078-81) at Paris, the Panoply for Alexis Comnenus (1081-1118), and the Evangeliarium for John Comnenus (1118-4.3) at the Vatican. The decoration has become extremely rich at this time and the figures reduced in size or surround- ed by heavy borders. Classic traditions no longer obtain, and asceticism dominates. The connec- tion with monumental painting during all these centuries has remained very close, and as there is an imbroken series of examples, in contrast to the scarcity and breaks in larger works of mosaic and wall painting, the miniatures supply invalu- able material for the history of medieval paint- ing. In this branch only does the East preserve many examples, in the libraries of many monas- teries, such as those of Mount Sinai, Mount Athos, and many more throughout the Levant. Still it is in Western collections, such as the 'atican, BibliothCquc Xationale, and British JIuseum libraries, that the bulk ha.s found ref- uge. Being a common object of commerce, these manuscripts, imported into Italy, Germany, and France, furnished lo(;al sculptors, painters, and decorators with models and motives in nearly every branch of art during all the centuries before the Renaissance. Finally, there are a few other categories which may he mentioned, though of lesser importance. There were little portable mosaic tablets, such as the diplychs in the 0])era. del Duomo in Florence ;ind the Transtigiu'atioa in the Louvre, of marvelous delicacy of execu- tion. The panel pictures, which were of consid- erable size in Italy, appear to have been smaller in the Byzantine School. The remaining exam- ples are mostly later than the Twelfth Century. There are interesting collections at the Vatican, at Ravenna, and at Palermo. Earlier panel pic- tures are some of the so-called miraculous paint- ings of the "Virgin and Child," some supposed to be painted without hands. A number are in Rome (e.g. Santi Domencio e Sisto and Santa jiaria Maggiore), Venice (Saint JIark's), Bo- logna (San Stefano), and throughout Italy. Crete was the centre for a school of panel paint- ing, one of its leaders being Rico. It influenced the Itali.an .schools in the Thirteenth Century. In Venice it.self was established, in the Eleventh Century, a school of Byzantine painters. In the vexed question of Byzantine influence over Euro- pean art, there is one point where no reasonable doubt can exist: that in all these minor arts the far more advanced culture of the Ea-st furnished the standards, not only for technique and artistic form, but for treatment of theme. The silk and tapestry workers of Sicily, Venice. Rome, and Flanders, the gold, silver, and enamel workers of the Rhine, the mosaicists of Campania and Ven- ice, the panel painters of Tuscany, the ivory- carvers and goldsmiths of the monasteries every- where, learned their art from Byzantium. BiBLioGB.PHT. Bayet, L'Art Bi/zanI in (Paris, 1892), is a convenient handbook. The literary sources are collected in Unger, Quellen der byzan- tinischen Kunstfieschichte (Vienna, 1878). In Garrucci, fitoria deW arte cristiana (Prato, 1879-99), are reproduced the miniatures, ivo- ries, mosaics, and other works earlier than the Ninth Century. KondakoflF. Eistoire de I'art hyzantin (Paris, 1886-91), is a careful study of the history of Byzantine illuminated manu- scripts. Labarte, Uistoire des arts industriels (Paris, 1873), though tincritical, is very impor- tant as the only general treatment of all the minor arts, well illustrated. The great collec- tions of Cahier and Martin, Melanges d'archeolo- gie (Paris, 1847-5fi), and id.. Xouveaux me- langes d'archeologie (Paris, 1874), contain many ivories, stuffs, and illuminations. For enamels the best work is KondakoflF, fleschichte tind Denlc- miiler des hyzantinischen Emails (Frankfort, 1889-92). For an account of the great share taken by the monasteries of Mount Athos, con- sult Brockhaus, Die Kiinst in den Athos-Klos- tern (Leipzig, 1891); for methods of construc- tion, Choisy, L'art de bdtir cliez les Byzantins (Paris, 1883) ; for groups of monuments, Pul- gher. Les anciennes cjr/iscv byzantines de Con- stantinople (Vienna, 1878) ; Salzenberg, Die altchristlichrn Baudrnl;mah- ron Knnstnntinopel (Berlin. 18.54) ; Texier and Pullan, Bijznntino Architecture (London, 1884). Historical synop- ses may be found in Essenwcin, Byznntinische Bnukunst (Darmstadt. 1886), in a German series of handbooks edited by Durm, and in Kraus, (Irschiehte der christlichen Kunst, I. (Freiburg, 1896),
