COLOMBIA. 157 COLOMBIA. the !Magdalena the thermometer is frequently above 100°. The llanos have an exceedingly hot climate, while on the Pacific coast the tempera- tur<' is greatly modified by -sea-breezes. On the table-lands of the Cordilleras the mercurj' occa- sionally falls as low as 44". In the mountainous parts there are two rainy seasons; on the coast, rains occur at any time of the year. Generally speaking, the country is healthful. Flora. The variety of climatic conditions and the very irregular formation of the surface naturally produce a varied flora. In the lower regions plant life is purcl.y tropical and includes the common plants of South America. The palms are very nimierous, and include the lofty wax- palm {Ceroxylon Andicola) . Of the more useful forest trees of this region is the rubber {Caxlilloa elaslica). The mountain slopes are mostly clothed with thick forests, the timber-line being above 10.000 feet. Cinchona-trees of several species are found between 7000 and 9000 feet above the sea, and the aloe, the sarsaparilla, and other medic- inal plants grow in abundance. Cacao, coffee, sugar, and indigo are largely cultivated. Fauna. The fauna is also of great variety, and includes the larger South American nuim- malian types, such as the jaguar, puma, tapir, ant-eater, sloth, several species of monkey, and one or more species of red deer (on the plateaus) . The condor, vulture, numerous toucans and par- rots, and a variety of humming-birds (some of tliem confined to the snowy regions of the vol- canoes) are a part of the rich avifauna. Serpents of several kinds are found in the torrid regions: the venomous forms are rarelv found above 6000 feet. Geology. The mountain regions here have long been the seat of great volcanic activity. The chief formations in the central range are granite, gneiss, basalt, and eruptive rocks, while in the eastern range Cretaceous formations pre- dominate. The geological structure of the 'est- ern Cordillera has not yet been fully investigat- ed. The entire portion east of the Cordilleras is occupied by the llanos — vast treeless plains having an altitude of from 1000 to 1500 feet, and well adapted for pasturing. The isthmus section is partlj' hilly and partly low and swanip3'. Mineral Eesoueces. Colombia is very rich in minerals, especially in precious metals. Gold is found mostly in alluvial deposits and in the streams. During the Spanish regime the pro- ceeds fron the gold-mines constituted the chief revenue; but the extracting was carried on by most primitive means. !NIodern methods were introduced only during the last quarter of the nineteenth century, though the principal mines have long been operated by English companies. The chief centre of gold-mining is Antioqula, which yields about .$'200,000 per annum. The leading silver-mines are in Tolima and Cauca. The annual silver output of the countrv amounts to nearly $4,000,000. The other m'ineral re- sources — iron, copper, platinum, lead, and salt — are little developed. Emeralds are mined chiefly in the Department of Santander. the mines of IMuzo being the most noteworthy. Salt- mining, a Government monopoly, is carried on chiefly around Zipaquira and Nemoeon, where salt is found both in rock form and in springs. Coal exists in the Eastern Cordillera and in many other parts, but is as yet scarcely touched. .VijBiciLTUBE. The principal industry of Colombia is agriculture, which is greatly favored by the soil and climate, but is carried on by primitive methods. Cultivation is confined mainly to the elevated plateau of the western part. These sections are best adapted to settle- ment by European immigrants, on account of the salubrious climate. In the hot districts the chief plants are cofl'ee. tobacco, sugar, cacao, etc. Tobacco, and especially ccillcc, are largely ex- ported. In the less torrid regions tlie agriculture i-^ more European in character, wheat, corn, and barley being leading crops. The banana-tree is found all over the Re])ublic. and the fruit is exported in large quantities, mostly to the United States. The absence of adequate trans- portation facilities and the sparseness of popu- lation are such hindrances to agriculture that the total yield of the food crops is not sufficient to satisfy the home demand, and the deficiency has to be made up by imports. The rubber-tree and the copail)a-tree grow wild and are tapped but not cultivated. The uplands are the home of the tolu, well kno^'n for its balsam. Cattle- raising is conducted on a consider;ible scale, especially on the llanos. In 1001 the number of cattle in the Republic was estimated at 3,450,00(). Both cattle and hides form prominent items of export. Manufactures. The manufacturing indus- tries are insignifieant. The Indians make pot- tery, cotton fabrics, and straw mattings, as well as the famous 'Panama' hats. The sugar-mills are of the most primitive kind. The industry of wood-carving and horn-carving, once well developed among the aboriginal population, is gradually dying out. The distilling of liquor from sugar is a Government monopoly. Tran.sportation and Communication. Owing to its mountainous surface, Colombia is very de- ficient in roads. Communication is mostly main- tained by means of narrow paths accessible only to pack-mules, and even the principal roads are usually in aa almost impassable condition. The lack of good roads is partly remedied by the navigable waterways. The Magdalena chiefly, and the Atrato, Cauca, and a number of minor streams, are utilized for transportation, while through the river Meta communication is had with the Orinoco. The construction of railways in the Republic has been very slow and irregular. There were in 1901 about 400 miles in operation. The most important line is the Panama-Colon (48 miles), ownied by an American corporation. Other lines are also operated by American com- panies. Some are managed by the States with the assistance of the Central Government. These short lines — j-anging from 2.5 to 100 miles in length, and scattered all over the country — have little influence on the general economic condi- tions of the Republic. There are a number of new lines and extensions surveyed and projected, but they will hardly be built until the political conditions become more stable. There are. nearly 9000 miles of telegraph line. About 1000 vessels of 1,. 300,000 tons annually enter and clear the ports. The Republic is in regidar communica- tion with Europe and the United States by means of ten lines of mail steamers. Commerce. The commerce of Colombia, like its industries, is hindered by lack of transporta- tion facilities, the frequency of political dis- turbances, and the heavy export and import
