EDUCATION. 656 EDUCATION. curriculum, through the introduction of new sub- jects, chiefly of a scientific chariu-ter, and in a modification of emphasis and (ir^anization. In its earlier stages the movement was hirgely a result of the expansion of the organized branches of human knowledge, and the demand made by the new professional and industrial opportunities for a wider knowledge and a .training different from that afforded by the old literary education. The change in the eurriculmu of tiie colleges, as well as of elementary schools, the rapid dcvel- o|>ment of institutions of the tyix- of American high or secondary scliools, of technical, manual- training, and professional schools, the introduc- tion of the system of elective courses (q.v.) into colleges, the important position given to the various natural and social sciences, the attention devoted to the organization of all the school cur- ricula and school systems, are all asi)ects of the sociological tendency. ICniCATio.v AS A Science. Not to be clearly distingtiishcd from this sociological tendency is a more comprehensive view of the past decade, which has aimed to combine the essential truths of the above tendencies, and hence may be called the eclectic or scientific view. It recognizes the coordinate value of method and subject matter, of the process of the development of the mind, and of the relation of educational activities to society It avoids the controversial character of the parent tendencies, and aims rather at scien- tific exposition. It is based upon the results of both psychological and sociological sciences, and has influenced education rather tlirough the more scientific formulation of the principles of method and curriculum in their nuitual relations. The following definitions set forth this conception: Education is "the organization of acquired habits of action and tendencies to behavior, which shall fit him [the child] to his social and physical world" : it is the "making over of experience and giving it a more sociological value through in- creased individual efficiency, or better control over one's own powers"; it is "the adjustment of the child to the spiritual inheritancei of the race." These tlirce definitions, given severally by Prof. William .Tames of Harvard, Prof. .John Dewey of the University of Chicago, and President Butler of Columbia University, give the idea of the fore- most leaders in educational thought in the Vnited States at the present time. The study of education is now recognized as a science, in that it has a body of data quite as definite as that of many of the applied sciences, and as well-de- fined methods of dealing with such data. It is not a science in the sense of having any univer- sally accepted group of principles as a basis of study, and in this it is in the same status as history, sociology', and most of the social sciences. Its recognition as a science has led to the estab- lishment in most of the leading universities of departments of education of a character wholly different from that of the professional training normal schools (q.v.). Of the last importance is the influence exerted by the Government Com- niis.sioner throvigh the Bureau of Education at Washington. Dr. W. T. Harris has by his oflicial publications, private editorial work, and public addresses, assumed the leadership originally con- templated in the estaldishment of the de]>art- ment. As a result of this professional and scientific study of the subject the character of the teaching profession has been greatly im- proved, and more intelligent consideration has been given by t!ie public to the iiroldenis of local school organization, supervision, textbooks, mctliods. and the relations of teachers, as well as to the broader subject of education as a matter of public policy. MiULiOfiRAi'iiy. There is no more conclusive evidence of the importance and the scientific char- acter that the study of education has assumed during the nineteenth century than the very ex- tensive literature of the subject. A very few titles selected from this extensive list may be here mentioned: Hall (Boston. 189:1). Sonnen- scliein (XewYork, 1891 and 189.5) , Monroe ( Xew York, 1897), Cubberly (New York, 190:i), have each published a Bibliography of Kducalion. The Bulletin of the Books on Kdueation in the lAhraries of Columbia University (Xew York, 1901) also furnishes an extensive bibliography. There is no good encyclo]iu'dia of education in English to compare with liuisson's Hie- lionnaire de pedagogie (Paris, 188"): or Kein, Kncyklopadischcs Handburh dcr I'iidogogilc, now in process of publication : or Schmid, Knryklo- piidie des gcsamteii Erziehungs- und I'ltterrichts- wesens (10 vols., Gotha, 1880-87). Sonnen- schein has published a brief Cyclopwdin nf Ediirn- iion (London, 1889). The nearest apjiroach in the United States, save one or two wholly insuf- ficient eneyclopiedias, is Barnard, American Jour- nal of Education (Hartford, 18')5-81) ; .ppleton, International Education Series (4.5 vols.. New York, 1885 et seq.) : Heath. Pedagogical Library (28 vols.. Boston, 188G et seq.) ; Scribner. Great Educator Series ( 10 vols.. New York. 1892 et seq.) : and the Reports of the United States Com- missioner of Education (Washington. 18()7 et seq. ) . For the very ntimerous French and (Ger- man works on the history of education, the reader is referred to the bibliographies given above. Among the best are those by Schmid, Schmidt, Kaumer. Paulsen, and (Irasberger. Raumer, fleschichte dcr Piidagogik, has been translated for the most part in Barnard. German Teachers and Education (Hartford. 1878). Compayre, fli.s^oi'i/ of I'edagogy, is published in translation by Payne (Boston, 1886). On ancient education the best English works are Laurie, Historical Surrey of Pre-Christian Education (London. 1895) ; Mon- roe, Source Book in the History of Education for the Greek and lioman Period (Xew York. 1901) ; Mahaffy. Old Greek Education (Xew York, 1882) ; Davidson, Education of the Greek People (Xew York, 1894). On modern education a few of the best historical and descriptive works are the Reports, by ^Matthew Arnold (London. 18(il et seq.) ; the publications of Henry Barnard on Xational Education (Xew York. 1857-7.3) ; the volumes in the general series referred to above; Russell, German Higher Schools (Xew York, 1899) ; Balfour, Educational Systems of Great Britain and Ireland (London, 1900) ; and Quick. Educational Reformers (New York, 1890). In addition to the treatment given in the above references, the works of the following authors relate wholly or in part to theory of education: namely, Plato. Aristotle, Cicero, Quint ilian, Plu- tarch (the discussions on education by these writers are given in selections in Monroe's Source Book, mentioned above). C'omenius, Rabelais, Montaigne, ililton. Locke. Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Froebcl. Richter. Rosniiiii, and Spencer. For statement of present formulation of theory, con-
