EGYPT. 699 EGYPT. inann, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians (Eng. trans.. New York. 1897); Eiuiau, JJ/e in An- cient Egypt (Eng. trans., Londun, 1S!)4). It was at all times a dwply rooted belief of the ancient Egyptians that man jiossessed a spiritual part which continued to exist after death, although the precise nature of this ex- istence was never very clearly defined. They regarded the human personality as consisting of at least three parts: the mortal, corruptible bod.v (Ichat), the living soul (ba), and a sort of spiritual double, or ghost, which was called the ka. The 6<j or soul seems to have represented the vital principle; but it had other functions 'which are by no means clear. After death it was supposed to leave the body in the form of a bird, usually represented with human head and hands, and to Hy up to the gods in heaven. The ka was an independent spiritual being, living within a man, and representing his human personality both during life and after death. It was his inseparable companion during life, and after death it hovered around bis mortal re- mains. At times it could enter and reanimate the body; it was necessary, therefore, to preserve the body in such condition as to be always ten- antable by its spiritual visitor. To this end it was incumbent upon the relatives of the deceased to have his body as carefully embalmed as their means would allow, and to place it in a tomb where it would find protection from all accidents. But although separated from the body, the ka still experienced hunger and thirst, and other human needs. It was therefore necessary to provide food and drink, books, games, and such household effects as would secure the comfort of the ka in the tomb. It w-as not absolutely required that material food and drink should be supplied. Magical formul,T recited over the body or inscribed upon the tomb insured to the de- ceased the enjoyment of "thousands of bread, beer, oxen, and geese." Such formulae were always repeated at the funeral bj- the reciter- priest, and the inscriptions constantly adjure visitors to the tomb to repeat these important words. The ba and the ka existed in the individual during life, and continued to live as separate entities after death. But when life departed from the body, the spiritual personality of the deceased assumed a new form, known as his Osiris. Of what elements this spiritual counter- part of the deceased was made up is not ex- plained, and the Egyptians themselves seem to liave had verj- vague and confused notions upon the subject. So much, at any rate, is clear, that just as Osiris died and lived again, so the spirit- ual personality of the deceased lived again and was merged in Osiris, or rather it became Osiris himself. As to where and how the individual lived after death, various ideas were entertained. He was supposed to find a home among the stars; to sit like a bird on the branches of trees; to hover around his mvimmy in the tomb; or to appear upon earth in various transformations. According to the most widely prevalent belief, however, the defunct was ecmducted by the god Antibis to the realm of the dead, where he had to undergo judgment before Osiris, the King of the Lower World, and forty-two Assessors, of strange snd monstrous form. The path was beset with difficulties and dangers; gates had Vol. VI.— 15. to be passed which opened only to those who kneW' the proper password; demons lay in wait to seize upon unwary souls; lakes of fire must be traversed ; and many other obstacles lay in the way. But if the deceased were provided with the appropriate formula; of the liouk of the Dead he surmounted all these diflicullies, and finally entered the judgment hall. If the judg- ment was adverse, he was cast into a fiery lake, or given over to be devoured by a hideous monster. If, however, the judgment was favor- able, the defunct was assigned an abode in the Elysian Fields, and enjoyed a perpetual banquet at the table of Osiris. If, moreover, he knew the proper magical formula', he could come forth u])on earth, and assume any shape he pleased; he traversed the heavens in the boat of Ke and Horus, and shared in their triumph over the powers of darkness; all earthly impurities were washed away, the divine portion alone remained, and he became a god. In the course of the final judgment, the deceased was obliged to ))resent himself before each of the forty-two judges in turn, and declare himself free from a particular sin. This constituted the celebrated "Negative Confession," which is to be found in chapter exxv. of the Book of the Dead. It indicates the existence of a high standard of morality, and is thoroughly in accord with the teaching of the moral papyri, and with many funerarj' inscrip- tions, in which the particular virtues of the deceased are detailed. It was not, however, necessary that the deceased should be actually guiltless of all the sins: it was only necessary that he should declare himself guiltless of them, and, above all, that he should know the names of the infernal judges. If he knew the proper chapter of the Book of the Dead, or even if it were written out and placed in his coffin, he had nothing to fear. It is sometimes assumed that the Egyptians looked for a general resurrection of the dead and for a great day of judgment, when all man- kind must answer together for the deeds done in the fiesh. Of this, however, the evidence is far from satisfactorv'. and it would rather seem that e;ieh individual underwent judgment, and re- ceived his reward or punishment shortly after death. Consult: Wiedemann, The Ancient Egyp- tian Doctrine of Immorlality (New York. 1895) ; Erman, Life in Ancient Egypt (London. 1S04). The best works on Eg>-ptian religion are; Maspero, Etudes de mythologie et d'archfologie egyptienne (Paris. 189.3) ; Wiedemann. The Re- ligion of the Ancient Egyptians (New York, 1897). Bnigsch. Religion and Miithologie (Leip- zig, 1884-88) is very full, but not critical. For illustrations, consult Lanzone, i»i>!0H«rio' di mito- logia cgizia (Turin. 1881-88). Champollion, Pon^ theon cgyptien (Paris, 182.5) is still useful. Manners and Customs. The wonderful fer- tility of the Nile Valley has been famous in all ages, and. under normal conditions, the produce of the soil has always sufficed to support a dense poptilation, and to leave a large surplus of commodities for export. Agriculture was the source of Egypt's wealth, and probably the most important factor in the development of her civili- zation. Tender these circumstances, it was nat- ural that social conditions were largely deter- mined by the ownership of land. In the time of the Old and Sliddle Empires the land was, with
