EGYPT. 708 EGYPT. Provisional Government at Cairo, and intrusted the defense of the eountry to Arabi. Meanwhile the English, after an inetTeetual siege of some weeks, abandoned the attaek on Kafi Dowar, and an Anglo-Jndian army of 40,000 men was sent across the Isthmus of Suez, under command of Sir Garnet Wolseley. They landed at Isniailia and advanced to Tel el-Kebir, where a large army of insurgents had thrown up iMtrench- ments. These were stormed September Lith. A forced nuireh was then made on Cairo, which was reached by nightfall. Arabi at once sur- rendered, the National army was disbanded, and the Kheilive was restored to his authority. Arabi was sentenced to death, but the sentence was commuted to exile on the island of Ceylon. Various reforms were introduced by the Eng- lish, acting through Lord DulTerin, wlio was ap- pointed Special ('ommissioncr to Kgypt. The French having taken no part cither in sup- pressing rebellion or in the subsequent reorgani- zation, the dual control came to an end in 1S83, notwithslanding the i)rotest of Francie. An army of occupation was deemed necessary for a while to preserve tranquillity ; but it was ])rom- ised that its size should be steadily reduced. This promise, ow-ing to a serious outbreak of the Arabs in the Sudan i(q.v. ), and the inlierent weakness of the Khedival Government, was not redeemed. Egypt became practicall- a dejjend- ency of England, garrisoned by English troops, and with a (iovevnment whose policj' is in all things directed 1)V the representative of Eng- land, though still carried out in the name of the Khedive. The Suez Canal, the new gateway to the East, and the strategic position of Egypt with reference to the development and control of Africa, gave that country a new importance, especially for Great Britain. Egypt is still nominally a province of the Ottoman Empire ; but the Government of Great Britain, where half of the Egyptian national debt is held, undertakes to represent the foreign creilitors. The commander of the army, known as the Sirdar, is an English olTiecr. There is an In- ternational Court, on which thirteen European countries and the United States are repre- sented, which has jurisdiction in eases in which foreigners are concerned. The Khedive and the Ciovernment may be held responsible before this court. The finances are guarded by the International Debt Commission, on which all the great Powers of Europe are represented. Under British control the expenditures have been brought within the receipts, taxes have been reduced, and eom]iulsory labor and slavery have been abolished. The Sudan, subject to Egypt in some measure since 1820, wuth its fanatical tribes of fearless though barbaric warriors, was a problem for the administrators of Egj'pt to deal with; its control was of great strategic im- portance, and it was a centre of the slave trade. In 1874 Charles George Gordon (q.v.) was ap- pointed Governor-General of the Sudan, and suc- ceeded in partially organizing the country and suppressing the slave trade. He was succeeded in 18S1 by Raouf Pasha, under whom the coun- try relapsed into barbarism. The advent of the Mahdi (q.v.), Mohammed .hmet, in 1883, brought religions fanaticism into the struggle against Egyptian control. The rapid increase of the JIahdi's power and the defeat of the . glo- ICgyptian army inder Hicks Pasha led the Government to send General Gordon back to the Sudan in 1884. He was soon cut oil' in Khar- tum, and the relief expedition under Wolseley arrived too late (.January 28, 1885) to save him. The Sudan was left to itself until 18'.)4, when Sir Herbert Kitchener, in a series of campaigns which proved the quality of the new Egyptian army, succee<ied in reestablishing the authority <jf the governments over the Egyptian Sudan, Ills final triumph being the battle of Omdurman (Seplonil>cr 2, 1898). Tewfik's son, Abbas Hilmi, wlio had been educated in Europe, suc- ceeded as Khedive, .January 7, 18112, and proved an able and enlightened ruler. Lord Cromer, the British Consul-General, has had much influ- ence in shaping the course of affairs in lg.vpt and the Egyptian policy of his own Government since the establishment of British inllucnee in that country. BiBLiOGKAPHY. Art and Architecture : In ad- dition to the works already cited in the article, the following may be consulted: Perrot-Chipiez, Ilistury of Art (Paris, 1883) ; Maspero, Effi/p- linn Archwoloijij. trans, by Edwards (London. 1889) ; Petrie. bUjtiplkin Decorative Art (Lon- don, 1895). See Obelisk; Pyramid; Spiiin.x. Jlonuments and Archa'ologv: Rosellini, J/ohh- moiti (Irtr Eiiilfo e ilrlla' yuhia (Pisa, 1832- 44) ; Champollion, Monuments (Paris, 1835-45) ; Lepsius, Doihnnilrr (Berlin, 1849-59). The French pioneer work, Maillet, Description de VEgijpte (Paris, 1735), is antiquated. Ancient History: Petrie, History of Eyypt (London, 1894 et seq.) ; Maspero. History of the Ancient Orient (London, 1895-99). Jlediajval History: Weil, (leschichle des Ahassidenchalifats (Stutt- gart, 1802) ; Quatrem&re, Bistoire d<-s tfultans Maincloiil.s (Paris. 1837-41). Of scientific jour- nals, the Zeitschrift fiir iiyyptische Sprache ( Ber- lin). Ucciieil de Travnux (Paris), and Sphinx (Upsala) are the most important. On the mod- ern inl>al)itants, the classical work of Lane, Man- ners and Customs of the Modern Eityptians, new ed. (London, 1882). is still unsurpas.sed. Con- sult also in general : Ebers, Aeqiipten in Bild und Mart (Stuttgart, 1879-80) ; trans, by Clara Bell under the title Eyypt, Descriptive, Histor- ical, and Picturesque (London, 1881-82): Lane, Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians, new ed, (London. 1882): Poole. '"Egypt." in Foreiqn Countries and British Colonies (London, 1881)': id., Social Life in Egypt (ib., 1S84) ; Horve, L'Eyyptc (Paris, 1883): Wallace, Egyjit and the Egyptian Question (London, 1883): Malortie, Egypt: Native Rulers and Foreign Interference ( ib., 1883); Virchow,- Land iind Leute im alten und neuen Aegypten (Berlin, 1888) ; Kaj'ser, Aegypten, einst und jetzt (Frei- burg, 1889) ; Plauchut, L'Egyptc et I'occupation anglaise (Paris, 1889) ; Rae, Egypt Toikiy (Lon- don, 1892) ; Neumann, Das moderne Aegypten (Leipzig, 1893); Borclli, Choses politiques d'Egypte lSS.3-9o (Paris. 1895); Fircks, Aegyp- ten is!)-', (Berlin. 1895-90) ; Wood. Equpt Vnder the British (London. 1890): Bouignet. La France et I'Anglelerre en Egyple (Paris, 1S!)7) ; Stcevens, Egypt in 1S!)S (Edinburgh, 1898) ; Cameron, Egypt in the Xineteenlh Century (Lon- don, 1898)": Pcnfield, Present-day Egypt (ib., 1899); White. The Expansion of Egupl ( ib., 1899); Milncr, England in Egypt (ib!, 1899);
