ESOTERIC. 211 ESPERSON. signed for the public. The word esoteric is not used by Aristotle himself, and it, is doubtful if his use of the word exoteric implies this distinc- tion. Grote understands the word exoteric, as used by Aristotle, to refer to the dialectic method, as opposed to the non-exoteric (esoteric), or didactic, met hud. The term was also applied to the special teachings of Pythagoras. ESPALIER, cs-par.ver (Fr., railing for fruit- trees, It. spalliera, from Lat. spatula, broad piece, blade). A railing on which fruit trees are trained as on a wall. Such railings are vari- ously constructed, si times of wood, sometimes of iron, sometimes of upright strips held together by a horizontal rail at the top, sometimes chiefly of horizontal rails with upright posts for their support. Espaliers may be conveniently and cheaply made of strong iron wire, sustained by upright iron or wooden posts, as in ordinary wire fences. They vary in height from four to about eight feet, according to situation and the size of the garden. They have the advantage of securing the fruit in a great measure from the effect of winds, which often shake off a great part of the crop of standard trees while still unripe; and from the full exposure to sun and air excellent fruit is produced, although there is no reflected heat as from a wall, which is there- fore still superior. Not only does the term apply to the trellis on which the plant is trained, but it is the name of a system of training by which plants are made to grow as espaliers, on a trellis (espalier) . ESPALIER PLANT. A plant which cannot grow erect without outside mechanical support; hence a prostrate or procumbent plant. See Stem. ESPARTERO, a'spiir-ta'ro, Baldomero (1792- 1S79). A Spanish general and statesman. He was born February 27, 1792, at Granatula in La Man- cha, and was educated at the University of Alma- gro. Upon the outbreak of the war against Napo- leon he joined the patriot forces and fought until 1814, going the next year to South America. There he served with the Spanish forces throughout the War of Liberation waged by the South American colonics. He returned in 1824 to Spain and took a prominent part in the civil conflicts which followed the death of Ferdinand VII. and the accession of Isabella. He rose to be lieutenant general, and twice, as commander-in- chief, saved Madrid from the Carlist forces, once in August, 1830, and again in September, 1837. In 1839 he expelled Don Carlos from Spain, a service for which he was made Duke of Vittoria and Morella and grandee of Spain, after having been created Count of Luchana for his bravery at Bilbao and Luchana. He now became practically military dictator of Spain, allied with the Pro- gressist Party, and in 1841, after the Queen Mother Maria Christina was forced to resign the regency, he was appointed by the Cortes in her place. His Government was marked by energy and ability: but in 1843 a combination of parties naturally inimical to each other, the Republicans and Moderates, overthrew his Government and drove him into exile. He spent four years in England, and in 1848 returned to Spain, living quietly at Logrono till 1854. when the wretched despotism and profligacy with which the name of Maria Christina is associated caused an insurrec- tion of the people and compelled the Queen -Mother to leave the kingdom. Espartero, rap ported by the Progressists and General O'Don nell, supported bj the Conservatives, now eon ducted a coalition government for two years; but I lie Progressists lost, their hold in that time, and Espartero gave nay (July, 1856) to O'Donnell, whose tenure of office was very brief. In 1S.",7 Espartero resigned bis dignify as Senator, ami after that lime rarely took part in politi After the Revolution of 1868, which resulted in the expulsion of Queen Isabella, lie gave his lull adhesion to the Provisional Government, though he took no part in their proceedings. In Isyo he was induced to become a. candidate for the throne of Spain, but withdrew in June of the same year, alleging his age ami the division of parties as excuse. In 1875 he adhered to King Alfonso. He died January 9, 1879. Consult: Florez, Espartero, Historia de sv r<</<; militar y politica (Madrid, 1843-44); and Mariana, La regencia de Baldomero Espartero (ib., 1870). See Spain. ESPAR'TO. A grass (Stipa tenacissima) ex- tensively employed in the manufacture of paper in Great Britain. A number of species are coin tuoii in the drier parts of the United States, where they form good pasturage. The awns of some species, however, when ripe are troublesome to stock. See F'eather-Grass. ES'PER, Euoen Johann Christopii ( 1742- 1810). A German naturalist, born at Wunsiedel. He was appointed professor of natural history at Erlangen in 1782, and director of the cabinet of natural history there in 1805. Especially note- worthy are his exhaustive works on the various species of butterfly, respectively entitled. Die europaischen Hchmeltrrlinge (new ed. 1829-39), and Die auslandischen Schmetterlinge (new ed. 1830). ESPERANTO, ii'spa-ran'to (derived from Lat. sperare, to hope) . An artificial language in- vented about 1887 by the Russian scholar Zamen- hof. It differs from Volapiik (q.v.) in that its vocabulary is constructed upon only such words as are common to all European languages. Hence it will at the outset be easy of acquisition, and will not appear uncouth or strange to any. The fol- lowing comparison will serve to illustrate the dif- ference between English, Volapiik, and Esperanto : In English. — "The international language should be comprehensible to the whole educated world; but no man on the earth, except the Volapiikist, would comprehend even the word 'Volapiik.' " In Volapiik. — "Piik beviinetik pakapalom fa vol lolik pekulivol ; aim men nonik tala sesumii volapiikels, kapalom piiki lekanix "Volapiik.' " In Esperanto. — "La lingvo intcrnacia estas komprenita de la tuta mondo edukita : scd nenia homo sur la tero eksklusive la volapiikistoj koin- prenas la artan lingvon 'Volapiik.' " See UNI- VERSAL Language. ESPERSON, a'spar-sAn'. Pietro (1833—). An Italian jurist. He was born at Sassari. Sardinia, studied at the university there, and was instructor in law in the university from 1860 to 1865. In the latter year he was ap- pointed professor of international law at the University of Pavia. His works, chiefly on international law, and with particular reference to the bearing of such law upon peoples in a state of war, include: Rapporti giuridici tra i billige-
